II ||illl;J|llfe 




■iiil 



THE STABLE BOOK; 



BEING A TREATISE ON THE 



MANAGEMENT OF HORSES, 

IN RELATION TO 

STABLING, GROOMING, FEEDING, WATERING AND WORKING. 

^ NSTRUCTION CF STABLES, VENTILATION, STABLE 

APPENDAGES, MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET. 

MANAGEMENT OF DISEASED AND DEFECTIVE HORSES. 

/by 
JOHN STEWART, 

VETERINARY SURGEON, PROFESSOR OF VETERINARY MEDICINE, IN TH» 
ANDERSONIAN UNIVERSITY, GLASGOW. 

WITH NOTES AND ADDITIONS, 

ADAPTING IT TO 

AMERICAN FOOD AND CLIMATE, 
BY A. B. ALLEN, 

EDITOR or THE AMERICAN AGRIC-JLTURIST. 

WITH ILLUS^eXt^IOI^S. 



NEW YOEK : 
A. 0. MOORE, AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHER, 

(late 0. M. 8AXT0K A CO.,) 

NO. 140 FULTON STREET. 
18 5 9 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1855. 

By C. M. SAXTON & COMPANY, 

ID uie C.eiK s Office of the District Court of the United Slates, for the Southern 

District of New Voik. 



o^fO 







AMERICAN PREFACE. 



It may be thought, perhaps, by some, presumptuous on the 
part of any American, to undertake the editing with a view of 
improvement, of a work of the standard reputation of Stewart's 
Stable Economy. But it must be recollected that the climate 
and much of the food, and, consequently, the general manage- 
ment of the horse m Great Britain, are so diflerent from what 
they necessarily must be in North America, that great injury is 
often done to this noble animal by following British instruc- 
tions too closely in his rearing, and above all, in his stable 
management. 

The horse, both theoretically and practically, has been a 
favorite study with me from childhood ; and for the past ten 
years, I have been more or less engaged in breeding and 
rearing them on my farm, and in breaking and fitting them 
for market. I also had in early life, during a residence of 
nearly two years in the north of Europe, the advantage of 
studying the stable economy of large military establishments , 
and in my recent trip to England, I took every opportunity 
to inform myself, by personal inspection, on the subject of the 
horse in general, and particularly his rearing and stable treat- 
ment ; and in so doing, examined alike the thorough-bred, the 
hunter, the roadster, the farm, and the dray horse. 

Mr. Stewart evidently knew little of chymistry, either 
animal or vegetable ; and in speaking of these matters in- 
cidentally, particularly regarding the composition of food, the 
effects of cold and heat on the animal, &c., &c., has mado 



4 AMERICAN PREFACE. 

some gross mistakes. Since he wrote, Dumas, Boussingdultj 
Liebig, Payen, Johnston, Playfair, Karkeek, Read, and others, 
have thrown great light on this hidden science ; thus enabUng 
me to correct errors of considerable magnitude, and to add 
some things to the Stable Economy, important to a judicious 
and enlightened treatment of the horse 

In editing this work I have suppressed few whole pages, 
all of which were either quite erroneous in matters of fact, or 
totally inapplicable to this country. About the same quantity 
of matter suppressed has been added by me, which is enclosed 
in brackets. The engravings of Mr. Gibbons' stables, and the 
description of the same, are original with the American 
edition. Altogether, I trust I have made the work more ac- 
ceptable to my countrymen than it was originally ; and as a 
second edition may be called for, I shall be quite obliged to 
any one who will furnish me with any new information re- 
garding the horse, or correct any error into which I may 
lave inadvertently fallen. 

A B. ALLEN. 

New York. 



PREFACE 
TO THE THIRD ENGLISH EDITION 



Bv long experience it has been fully proved, that the native 
powers of the horse are susceptible of very much improve- 
ment. When properly managed in domesticity, his strength, 
and speed, and endurance, are so much increased, as to render 
the wild horse a contemptible rival. But the agents by which 
this improvement is effected are numerous ; and their power 
is not limited to the production of one change or two, but 
varies according to several circumstances — such as the du- 
ration and repetition of their operation, and the condition of 
the horse at the time they operate upon him. They are also 
under the direction of men not the most remarkable in the 
world for suitably adapting means to ends. It might, there- 
fore, be inferred that they are often mismanaged ; and it is 
true that they too frequently are so. The stable, the groom, 
the food, the water, and the work, each should contribute to 
raise the value of the horse ; but each may be misguided, and 
each may lend its aid to make him worthless. 

To trace the operation, so far as known, of every agent 
by which the horse is materially affected — to analyze com- 
pound agents — to consider the effects of each individually 
and in combination — and to make practice the master of 
theory, are the principal objects at which I have aimed in 
this work. I have labored to obtain all the information that 
labor could promise me and I have endeavored to arrange the 



6 PREFACE. 

whole subject into divisions, which will, as I think, rendei 
every part of it easily understood, and easily referred to by 
any one not ignorant of the English tongue. 

The first edition was published in March, 1838 ; the 
second, September, 1838 ; and this, the third, in July, 1840. 
I have had the honor of being consulted by many people at a 
distance, who know me only through my book. It seems 
proper for me to take this opportunity of stating that I am 
leaving this country upon account of rny health ; that I will 
still be happy to receive any useful communications regard- 
ing Stable Economy : and that, after August, letters should 
be addressed to me at Sydney, New South Wales. 

JOHN STEWART 

Glasgow. 



CONTENTS. 

FIRST CHAPTER. 
STABLING— P. 13 to 70. 

CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES— P. 13 to 42.— Bad Stables— Sit- 
uation of Stables — Damp Stables — New Stables — Size of Stables — 
Arrangement of Stalls — Double-headed Stables — The Walls — Doors 
— Windows — Window-Shutters — The Roof — The Floor — Drains — 
Declivity of the Stall — Precautions against Rats — Partitions between 
Horses — Standing Bales — Gangway Bales — Travises — Stall-Posts — 
Width of Stalls — Hay-Racks — Mode of filling Racks — Mangers — 
Water Mangers. 

VENTILATION OF STABLES— P. 42 to 59.— General State of- 
Difference between a Hot Stable and a Foul Stable — Object of Yen- 
tilation — Pure Air — Use of Air — Impure Air — Evils of Impure Air 

— Modes of Ventilating Stables — Outlets for Impure Air — Inlets for 
Pure Air — Objections to Ventilation. 

STABLE APPENDAGES— P. 59 to 70.— Loose Boxes— Hay-Cham- 
ber — Straw — Granary — Grain-Chest — Boiler-House — Water-Pond — 
Stable-Yard — Shed — Harness-Room — Stable-Cupboard — Groom's 
Bedroom— Stables of Mr. Gibbons— Stalls of Mr. Pell. 

SECOND CHAPTER. 
STABLE OPERATIONS— P. 71 to 135. 

STABLEMEN— P. 72 to 82.— How Taught— Character of— The 
Coachman — The Groom — Untrained Grooms — Boys — Strappers — 
Foreman — Driv ers . 

GROOMING— P. 82 to 104.— Dressing before Work— Dressing Vicious 

. Horses — Utility of Dressing — Want of Dressing — Lice — J)ressing 
after Work — Scraping — Walking a Heated Horse — Walking a Wet 
Horse— Wisping a Wet Horse — Clothing a Wet Horse — Removing 
the Mud — Washing:— Wet Les:s — Bathing. 

OPERATIONS OF" DECORATION— PI 104 to 122.— Uses and 
Properties of the Hair — Docking — Nicking — Dressing the Tail — 
Dressing the Mane — Trimming the Ears — Cropping the Ears — 
Trimming the Muzzle and Face — Trimming the Heels and Legs — 
Hand-Rubbing the Legs — Singeing — Shaving — Clipping — Utility of 
Clipping — Objections to Clipping — To give a Fine Coat. 



S CONTENTS 

MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET— P. 122 to 131.— Picking— Stop 
ping — Thrushes — Anointing — Moisture to the Crust — The Clay 
Box — Shoeing — Care of Unshod Feet. 

OPERATIONS ON THE STABLE— P. 131 to 135.— Bedding- 
Changing the Litter— Day-Bedding — Washing the Stable 

THIRD CHAPTER. 

RESTRAINTS-ACCIDENTS— HABITS— VICES— P. 136 to 156. 

RESTRAINTS— P. 136 to 138.— Tying-Up— The Halter— Collar— 
Neck-Strap — Reins — The Sinker. 

ACCIDENTS connected with Restraint— P. 138 to 146.— Getting 
Loose— Hanging in the Collar— Standing in the Gangway— Lying 
in the Gangway— Rolling in the Stall— Turning in the Stall— Lying 
below the Manger— Halter-Casting — Stepping over the Reins- 
Leaping into the Manger. 

STABLE HABITS— P. 146 to 150.— Kicking the Stall-post— Weaving 
— Pawing — Wasting the Grain — Shying the Door — Eating Litter- 
Licking. 

STABLE VICES— P. 150 to 156.— Treatment of Vice— Biting— Stall 
for a Biter — Kicking — Stall for a Kicker — Refusing the Girths. 

FOURTH CHAPTER. 

WARMTH— P. 157 to 163. 

Hot Stables; Effects of Hot Stabling; Warm Stables; Utility of Heat; 
Cold Stables— Temperature of the Stable— Sudden Transitions- 
Clothing— Kinds of Clothing— Winter Suit— Weather Clothing- 
Tearing off the Clothe?— Application and Care of the Clothes. 

FIFTH CHAPTER. 
FOOD— P. 164 to 280. 

ARTICLES OF FOOD— P. 164 to 196.— Kinds of Food— Green 
Herbage— Grass, Clover, &c., Furze : — Dry Herbage— Hay, Good, 
New, Heated, Musty, Weatherbeaten, Salted — Daily allowance of 
Hay — Hay-Tea— Straw — Barn-Chaff — Potatoes— Turnips — Carrots 
— Parsnips--Grain— Oats, Good, New, Fumigated, KOn-Dried, Bad- 
Diabetes— Preparation of Oats— Daily Allowance of Oats— Substitutes 
for Oats— Grain-Dust — Oatmeal Seeds — Gruel — Oaten Bread — Bar- 
ley — Malt — Malt-Dust — Grains — Wheat — Bran-Mash — Wheaten 
Bread — Buckweat — Maize — Rye — Beans — Peas — Vetch-Seed — 
Bread — Linseed — Oilcake — Hemp-Seed — Sago — Sugar — Fruit — 
Flesh— Fish— Eggs— Milk— Mare's Milk— Cow's Milk— Ablacta- 
tion. 

COMPOSITION OF FOOD— P. 196 to 201.— Nutritive Matters- 
Other Matters — Bitter Extract — Comparative Value of different 
Kinds of Fodder. 

PREPARATION OF FOOD— P. 201 to 218.— Objects of— Drying— 

. Cutting the Fodder — Chaff-Cutter — Utility of Cutting ; Mastication 

cf the Grain Insured; Deliberate Ingestion Insure i; Consumption 



CONTENTS. 9 

of Damaged Fodder promoted ; Chaff Eaten Quickly ; Easily Dis- 
tributed; The Mixture Preferred; Objections to Chaff; Summary 
— Mixing — Washing — Bruising — Grain-Bruiser — Grinding — Germi- 
nating — Steeping — Masking — Mashing — Boiling — Steaming — 

• Steaming Apparatus — Baking — Seasoning. 

ASSIMILATION OF THE FOOD— P. 2^18 to 249.— Prehension- 
Mastication — Insalivation — Deglutition — Maceration — Digestion. 

INDIGESTION OF THE FOOD— P. 222 to 228.— Founder ; Stag- 
gers ; Fermentation ; Colic ; Causes ; Symptoms ; Treatment. 

PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING— P. 228 to 247.— Digestion influenced 
by Work — Salt and Spices — Abstinence — Inabstinence — Hours of 
Feeding — Bulk of the Food — Condensed Food — Hard Food; Con- 
tinuous Use of — A Mixed Diet — Changes of Diet — Quantity of Food ; 
Deficiency ; Excess — Humors — Plethora. 

PRACTICE OF FEEDING— P. 247 to 266.— Farm Horses— Cart 
Horses — Carriage, Gig, Post, &c. — Mail Horses — Hunters ; Grazing 
Hunters ; Nimrod's Mode of Summering Hunters ; Winter Food of 
Hunters — Saddle Horses — Cavalry Horses — Race Horses. 

PASTURING— P. 266 to 278.— Pasture^Fields— Exercise at Grass- 
Position of the Head — Exposure to Weather — Shelter — Flies — In- 
fluence of Soil on Feet and Legs — Quantity of Food — Preparation 
for Pasturing — Times of Turning Out — Confinement — Attendance 
while Out — Treatment after Grazing — Mode of Grazing Farm 
Horses. 

SOILING — P. 278 to 279. — In what Cases proper or improper. 

FEEDING AT STRAW-YARD— P. 279.— Usual State of. 

SIXTH CHAPTER. 

WATER— P. 281 to 289. 

Thirst — Kinds of Water — Temperature of Water — Effects of Cold 
Water — Quantity of Water — Occasional Restriction — Habitual Re- 
striction — Modes of Watering. 

SEVENTH CHAPTER. 

SERVICE— P. 290 to 361. 

GENERAL PREPARATION FOR WORK— P. 290 to 298.— Break- 
ing, Objects of, Means employed — Inuring to the Stable, and Stable 
Treatment — Inuring to the Weather — Inuring to the Harness — In- 
urin? to Exertion. 

PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCULAR EXERTION— P. 298 to 303.— 
Circulation of the Blood — Muscular Action — Quickness of the Cir- 
culation — Quickness of the Breathing — Increased Formation of Heat 
— Perspiration. 

PREPARATION FOR FAST W^ORK— P. 303 to 328.— Natural 
Powers of the Horse — Conditioning, Training, Seasoning — Objects 
of Training— Size of the Belly— State of the Muscles— State of the 
Breathing — Quantity of Flesh — Agents of Training — Physic, Uses 
of. Effects of, a Course of. Composition of — Giving a BalJ — Preparing 
for Physic — Treatment under Physic — Colic — Superpurgation — • 
Sweating, Effects of — Sweating without Exertion — Sweating with 



10 CONTENTS. 

Exertion — Bleeding — Diuretics — ^Aleratives — Cordials — Musculai 
Exertion. 

PRESERVATION OF WORKING CONDITION— P. 328 to 335.— 
Agents that injure Condition — Disease — Pain — Idleness; Absolute, 
Comparative — Excess of Work — Emaciation — General Stiffness-^ 
Failure of the Lfss and Feet — Excess of Food — Deficiency of Food. 

TREATMENT AFTER WORK— P. 335 to 339.— Cleaning— Fo- 
menting the Legs — Leg Bandages — Dry Bandages — Wet Bandages 
— Water — Food— Cordials — Bedding — Pulling off the Shoes — The 
Day after Work. 

ACCIDENTS OF WORK— P. 339 to 353.— Cutting, Shoe to Pre- 
vent ; Boots to Prevent — Over-reaching, Shoe to Prevent ; Shoe that 
Produces — Hunting Shoe — Losing a Shoe — Percivall's Sandal — Fall- 
ing — Causes of Falling — Broken Knees — Injuries of the Back — In- 
juries of the Neck — Injuries of the Head — Breaking Down — Broken 
Leg — Staking — Bleeding Wounds — Choking — Ovyrmarlied — Con- 
gestion of the Lungs — Spasm of the Diaphragm — Excessive Fatigue. 

KINDS OF WORK— P. 353 to 360.— Power and Speed— Theoretical 
Table of Relation between Power, Speed, and Endurance — Practical 
Table of ditto — Travelling — Hunting — Racing — Coaching — Carting 
— Ploughing. 

REPOSE— P. 360 to 361.— Effects of Insufficient Repose— Sleep- 
Standing Repose — Lying Repose — Slinging Horses that never lie. 

EIGHTH CHAPTER. 

MANAGEMENT OF DISEASED AND DEFECTIVE 
HORSES— P. 362 to 369. 

Young Horses — Old Horses — Defective Fore Legs — Roarers — Cnronic 
Cough— Broken Wind — Crib-Biting— Crib-Biter's Muzzle — Wind- 
Sucking — Megrims — Blind Horses — Glandered Horses — Sickness- 
Bleeding — Fomenting — Poulticing — Blistering. 

MEDICAL ATTENDANCE— P. 367.— Pretensions of Owners and 
Stablemen — of Farriers and Smiths — of Veterinary Surgeons. 

INDEX, P. 371 



LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. 



I. — Inside of a stable belonsring to Mr. Lyon, to show the mode of 

conducting light through vLc hay-i^^t. P. 20. 
II. — Inside of Mr. Donaldson's stable, to show his mode of draining 

the stall. P. 26. 
III. — Inside of a Stable at the Glasgow ('avalry JtJarracKS, lo show 

how separation is effected by bales. P. 29. 
IV. — Safety-Hook, by which the bale and stall-post are connected in 

the Cavalry Stables. P. 30. 
v. — A low Hay-Rack and Corner Mangers ; the one for water, the 

other for grain. P. 36. 
VI. — Small Hay-Rack, Corner Manger, and runninsr Pulley for the 

Halter-Rein. P. 41. 
VII. — Section of a Stable belonging to Mr. Lyon, to show the mode 

of ventilating by one large aperture. P. 55. 
VIIL— Perspective View of Mr. Gibbons' Stables. P. 67. 
IX.— Basement Story. P. 67. 
X.— Third, Storv. P. 67. 
XI.— Second Story. P. 68. 
XII.— Stalls of Mr. Pell. P. 70. 
XIII.— Apparatus for Elevating the Tail. P. 108. 
XIV. — Spring Manger-Ring, by which the horse is liberated when oe 

gets the fore leg ever the halter-rein. P. 145. 
XV.— Stall for a Biter. P. 153. 
XVI.— Stall for a Kicker. P. 154. 
XVII.— Apparatus for Steaming the Food. P. 215. 
XVIII.— Shoe to Prevent Cutting. P. 339. 
XIX.— Boots to Prevent the Injury of Cutting. P. 340. 
XX. — Shoe to Prevent over-reaching. P. 341. 
XXI.-- -Hunting Shoe. P. 342. 
XXII.— Percivall's Patent Sandal. P. 343. 
XXIII.— -Muzzle to Prevent Crib-Biting. P. 363. 



For the drawings from which these engravings were engraved, I 
am indebted to the kindness of my friend, Mr. Robert Hart. [Those 
of Mr. Gibbons' stables and Mr. Pell's stalls, are furnished by the 
editor of the American edition.] 



STABLE ECONOMY 



FIRST CHAPTER. 
STABLING. 

r. CONSTRTJCTION OF STABLES. II. VENTILATION OF 

STABLES. III. APPENDAGES OF STABLES. 

CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 

Stables have been in use for several hundred years. It 
might be expected that the experience of so many geneia- 
tions would have rendered them perfect. They are better 
than they were some years ago. Many of modern erection 
have few faults. They are spacious, light, well-aired, dry, 
and comfortable. This, however, is not the character of 
stables in general. The majority have been built with little 
regard to the comfort and health of the horse. Most of them 
are too small, too dark, and too close, or too open. Some 
are mere dungeons, so destitute of every convenience that no 
man of respectability [or ordinary humanity] would willingly 
make them the abode of his horses. 

Stable architects have not much to boast of. When left 
to themselves they seem to think of little beyond shelter and 
confinement. If the weather be kept out, and the horse kept 
in, the stable is sufficient. If light and air be demanded, the 
doorway will admit them, and other apertures are superfluous ; 
if the horse have room to stand, it matters little though he have 
none to lie ; and if he get into the stable, it is of no conse- 
quence though his loins be sprained, or his haunches broken, 
in going out of it. 

Bad stables, it is true, are not equally pernicious to all 
kinds of horses. Those that have little work suffer much 

2 



14 STABLE EOXOMY. 

mismanagement before they are injured. But those in con 
stant and laborious employment must have good lodgings. 
Where the stables are bad, the management is seldom good, 
and it can not be of the best kind. It is no exaggeration to 
say, that hundreds of coaching-horses, and others employed 
at similar work, are destroyed every year by the combined 
influence of bad stables and bad stable management. Ex- 
cessive toil and bad food have much to do in the work of de- 
struction ; but every hostile agent operates with most force 
where the stables are of the worst kind ; and several causes 
of disease can operate nowhere else. 

Situation of StXbles. — Few have much choice of situa- 
tion. When any exists, that should be selected which will 
admit of draining, shelter from the coldest winds, and easy 
access. The aspect should be southern. Training stables 
should be near the exercising ground. The surface should 
be sloping, and the soil dry. Stables built in a hollow, or in 
a marsh, are always damp. When the foundation is sunk in 
clay, no draining will keep the walls dry. Some of the means 
usually employed against dampness in dwelling-houses, might 
be adopted in the construction of stables. These, as every 
builder knows, consist in a contrivance for preventing the 
wall from absorbing the moisture of the soil. In some places 
a course of whin, or other stone, impenetrable to water, joined 
by cement, is laid level with the ground ; in other places, a 
sheet of lead, laid upon a deal board, is employed ; and in 
the neighborhood of coal-pits, the foundation is sometimes 
laid in coal-dust, which does not absorb water, and is much 
less expensive than either lead or stone. It is not right to 
suppose that precautions of this kind are superfluous. 

A DAMP Stable produces more evil than a damp house. 
It is there we expect to find horses with bad eyes, coughs, 
greasy heels, swelled legs, mange, and a long, rough, dry, 
staring coat, which no grooming can cure. The French 
attribute glanders and farcy to a humid atmosphere ; and in 
a damp situation we find these diseases most prevalent ; 
though, in this country, excess of moisture is reckoned as 
only a subordinate cause. In London, and in other towns, 
there are several stables under the surface ; they are never 
dry, and never healthy. The ba,d condition, and the disease, 
so common and so constantly among their ill-fated inhabitants, 
may undoubtedly arise from a combination of causes ; but 
there is every reason to believe that humidit}'- is not the least 
poteat 



CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 15 

When horses are first lodged in a damp stable, they soon 
show how much they feel the change. They become dull, 
languid, feeble ; the coat stares ; they refuse to feed ; at fast- 
work they cut their legs in spite of all care to prevent them. 
This arises from weakness. .Some of the horses catch cold, 
others are attacked by inflammations of the throat, the lungs, 
or the eyes. Most of them lose flesh very rapidly. The 
change produces most mischief when it is made in the winter- 
time. 

All New Stables are Damp. — It is a long time ere the 
walls get rid of the moisture introduced by the mortar. En- 
try to a new stable should be delayed till it is dry, or as long 
as possible. If, as often happens, the stable be wanted for 
immediate occupation, the walls had better be left unplastered, 
unless there be sufficient time for the plaster to dry. The 
doors or windows should be kept off or wide open till the 
day of entry. A hw fires of charcoal, judiciously planted, 
and often shifted, will assist the drying process. White- 
washing the walls with a solution of quick-lime, seems to 
have some influence in removing moisture. When ready for 
entry, the stable should be filled. A horse should go into 
every stall. One helps to keep another warm. In the win- 
ter they should be clothed, have boiled warm food every 
night [if convenient to cook it] and be deeply littered. 

Damp stables may be rendered less uncomfortable by 
strewing the floor with sand or sawdust ; by thorough 
draining and ventilation. In some cases, a stove-pipe might 
be made to pass through the stable, near to the floor. 

Size of Stables. — They are seldom too large in propor- 
tion to the number of stalls ; but they are often made to hold 
too many horses. Those employed in public conveyances 
in coaches and boats, are frequently crowded into an apart 
ment containing twenty or thirty. It is not right to have so 
many horses, particularly hard-working horses, in one place. 
Such stables are liable to frequent and great alterations of 
temperature. When several of the horses are out, those 
which remain are rendered uncomfortably cold, and when 
full, the whole are fevered or excited by excess of heat. 
These transitions are very pernicious, and generally neg- 
lected. The owner wonders why so many of his horses 
catch cold ; there are always some of them coughing. If 
he were to make the stable his abode for twenty-four hours, 
and mark the number and degree of alterations which occur 
in its temperature, he would have little to wonder at. 



16 STABLE ECONOMY. 

Besides these transitions, so unavoidable in large stablesj 
.here are other evils. A very large stable is not easily ven 
tilated ; it requires a lofty roof to give any degree of purity ; 
it is not easily kept in order ; contagious diseases once in- 
rroduced, spread rapidly, and do extensive mischief before 
they can be checked ; and a large stable seldom affords a 
hard-working horse all the repose he requires. His rest is 
disturbed by the entrance and exit of other horses, or of the 
persons employed in stable operations. It sometimes happens 
that one mischievous or restless horse disturbs all his fellows. 
He would do so in a small stable ; but there he can not an- 
noy so many. All these objections are not applicable to 
every large stable. In some the horses go out and return all 
together. In that case, they are not exposed to such vicissi- 
tudes of temperature, nor so liable to have their rest broken. 
But the other evils are not insignificant. A very large stable 
has nothing to recommend it that I know of. The expense 
of erection may be something less, and one or two additional 
stalls may be obtained by lodging the horses all in one large 
stable, rather than in several small stables. When it is more 
important to have a cheap than a healthy stable, the large 
one may be preferred. The saving, however, may ultimately 
be a great loss, if the builder of the stable be the owner of 
the horses. 

For hunters and other valuable horses, the stables should 
not have more than four stalls. These should be on only one 
side. Nimrod recommends that only three horses be kept in 
these four-stalled stables, and that the inner partition be 
moveable, in order that two of the stalls may be converted 
into a loose box, whenever such an appendage is required. 
For a pair of carriage-horses, the stable should have three 
stalls. The odd one is often useful. Should a horse fall 
sick or lame, another can be taken in to do his work till he 
get better ; or, the inner partition being made to move, two 
of the stalls can be thrown into one. 

Hunters, carriage-horses, and others of equal size and 
value, require a good deal of room. In width, the stable may 
vary from sixteen to eighteen feet : and in length it must have 
six feet for every stall. Some are not above fourteen or fif- 
teen feet wide, but these are too narrow. Others are twenty 
feet, which I think is rather wide. There is no need for so 
much room ; when too wide, the stable is too cold. It is 
sufficiently wide at sixteen feet, and roomy at eighteen. 
Coach-horses, and others employed at similar work, usually 



CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 17 

Stand in a double row. The number of stalls should never 
exceed sixteen. It would be better if there were only eighi, 
or a separate stable for each team. For these stables the 
width may be from twenty-two to twenty-four feet. If the 
horses do not exceed the average height, the stalls may bo 
only five and a half feet wide ; but they are better to be the 
full width, six feet. Single-headed stables for coach-horses 
may be sixteen and a half feet wide, and seventeen is quite 
sufficient. Large cart-horses require a little more room, 
both in the length and breadth of the stable. 

Arrangement of the Stalls. — In this there is little 
variety. In a square or circular apartment, the stalls may be 
ranged on each side, or all round. There is one at Edin- 
burgh in a circular form. When full and lighted from the 
roof, it looks well, but no particular advantage is gained by 
this arrangement. The circular and the equilateral form 
leave a good deal of unoccupied room in the centre. An ob- 
long is the best, and the general form for a stable. The stalls 
may be arranged on both sides or on one only. Each mode 
has its advantages and disadvantages. 

Double-headed [double-rowed] stables, as those are called 
in which the stalls occupy each side, require the least space. 
When the gangway between the horses is not too narrow, 
they are sufficiently suitable for coach or boat-horses, or any 
others kept at full work. But many accidents arise from the 
horses kicking at each other when they grow playful, as they 
are apt to do while half idle. For this reason, a livery stable 
should not be double-headed, without a very wide gangway, 
perhaps of eight or ten feet ; they are quite unfit for valuable 
hunters or carriage-horses. Indeed, no width of gangway is 
sufficient to prevent some horses from attempting to strike 
when auDther is placed directly behind. Those that are dis- 
posed to mischief have frequent opportunities, as others are 
leaving or entering the stables ; mares especially are gener- 
ally very troublesome in these stables. For all kinds of 
horses, that stable is decidedly the best in which the stalls 
are ranged on one side only. These are termed single- 
headed. 

The Walls may be composed of wood, stone, or brick. 
In this country they are seldom made of wood. Stone is the 
most permanent material, and is usually employed wherever 
it can be cheaply procured, or the building likely to be long 
required. Stone walls are said by some to be apt to sweat, 
to keep the stable damp and cold ; but this objection, I appre- 



18 STABLE ECONOMY. 

hend, is applicable only to a new stone wall, to one composed 
of particular kinds of stone, or to tls i' which is sunk in clay. 
Brick walls, however, are most eaioemed. [Dampness of 
stone or brick walls may be entirely obviated in the drier 
climate of America, and warmth gained in winter, and cool- 
ness in summer, by nmning the roof over the gable ends and 
sides of the building about two feet, as in the Italian or old 
French style. Dampness may also be prevented inside, 
by furrowing out from the walls, and lath and plastering; 
but this is too expensive for stables ; nor does it accomplish 
the same objects as jutting roofs ; and, moreover, the hollow 
space makes a harbor for vermin, which is a very great ob- 
jection to it.] In towns or other places where the ground is 
likely in a short time to become too valuable for stables, brick 
is the least expensive material, and it brings the highest price 
when pulled down. A brick wall is usually recommended to 
be hollow, and thirteen and a half, or eighteen inches thick. 
Thus built, it is said to exclude the heat of summer and the 
cold of winter. Few, however, are made thicker than nine 
inches, and none hollow. It is a long time ere either cold 
or heat pierces a nine-inch wall ; but a thick wall affords re- 
cesses for racks, cupboards, and shelves, and, in exposed 
situations, it certainly keeps the stable comfortable through a 
severe winter. 

The inside of the walls is sometimes left bare, but most 
frequently it is either plastered or boarded. All the stalls 
ought to be lined with wood, boarded at the head for about 
three feet above the manger ; and the wall forming one side 
of the end stall should be boarded as high as the partitions. 
Sometimes the back wall is boarded all round to the height 
of four or five fee*. A few of the more costly kind, which 
are built of freestone, are polished on the inside as on the 
out. As far as tne horse is concerned, it is sufficient to have 
the wall neatly and smoothly dressed off. Plaster is apt to 
break, to blister, and fall away. The wooden lining round 
the lower part of the wall is more durable, and when the 
upper part is plastered, the stable has a cleaner, more finished, 
and more comfortable appearance. The parts against which 
the horse is likely to come in contact when rising, lying down, 
or turning, ought to be smooth and soft, not calculated to 
bruise or ruffle his skin. 

Doors. — A stable should have only one door. [This is 

not enough. They should have a door at each end, for t he 

ake of a draught of air when necessary. The stables are 



CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 19 

much drier for such an arrangement, and more healthy.] It 
may oe placed either at the middle or at the extremity of the 
gangway. It is most convenient at one end of the stable, 
affording a direct and easy passage out and in. The entrance 
should be eight, or eight and a half feet high, and five wide 
Accidents often happen from having it too low and too nar- 
row. Three feet six inches is the usual width of a stable 
doorway ; a few are four feet wide. There is seldom any- 
thing to prevent it from being five, and this width is the best. 
No care is necessary in taking the horse through. Passing 
through a narrow doorway, the careless or drunken driver is 
almost sure to bruise the horse's haunches. 

The door-sole should be about three inches above the outer 
surface, bevelled and grooved. The door itself should be in 
two or three pieces. It is sometimes cut into four ; but one 
longitudinal section down its middle, and another across one 
of the halves, are sufficient. One half or three fourths can 
thus be open or shut according to circumstances. Sometimes 
the door is divided into two by a transverse section, the lower 
half of which is usually closed when the groom is performing 
his stable operations. Whichever way it be divided, it ought 
to be so hung that it will be out of the way when open ; it 
should swing back of its own accord, and remain unheld ; bul 
it may have a spring or a catch for retaining it in place, lest it 
be caught by some part of the harness when the horse is going 
out or in. This often happens, and sometimes gives the horse 
such a fright or injury, that he learns the dangerous habit of 
leaping through the doorway. A self-acting spring can be 
depended on more than a servant. The doors usually open 
inward. The bolts should be of wood, and the key and the 
latch sunk flush with the door. The posts should be rounded. 
In some stables the middle of the door-post is made to re- 
volve, so that it may turn when struck by the haunches. This 
is a useless refinement ; it never turns by a blow, though it 
might if the horse were rubbing against it. Wider doorways, 
against which there can be no objections, render contrivances 
of this kind unnecessary. If there were any chance of in- 
jury to a valuable horse, the door-posts might be covered with 
a pad or cushion composed of hay or straw and gardener's 
matting. 

Windows are sadly neglected. They are often too few, 
too small, or ill placed, even in stables of high pretensions 
In very many stables, particularly those appropriated to farm- 
horses, there are no windows, nor any apology for them 



20 STABLE ECONOMV. 

The best lighted stables I have ever seen, are uiose belong- 
ing to Mr. Lyon of Glasgow (Fig. 1). They are lighted from 
the roof. 

Fio. 1. 




Each contains sixteen horses. The hay-lofts are over the 
stable. Light is conducted through the lofts to each stable 
by two wooden tunnels, which are covered by large windows. 
Mr. Laing's sale stable at Edinburgh is also lighted from the 
roof. When the hay-loft is above the stables, the windows 
very much diminish its size. That is the only objection to 
sky-lights. In single-headed stables side-windows answer 
quite as well, when properly placed, and of sufficient size. 
But in double-headed stables it is difficult to place them in 
such a manner that the light shall not fall directly upon thr 
horses' eyes. To be safe, and out of the way, they must be 
high in the wall ; and, to give sufficient light, they must be 
numerous, and ranged along each side. This can seldom be 
managed ; indeed it is seldom attempted. Most people seem 
to think that light is little wanted in a stable ; and, truly, 
after all the horses have become Wind for want of it, there is 
not so much need for windows. There is in general some 
kind of apology for a window. There may be a pane or two 
of glass above the door, or a hole at one end of the stable. 
When the man is working, he has light enough from the door 
and the horses have the benefit of that. Besides, it is said, 
horses do not require light. They thrive best in the dark ! 

From these and similar abuses, 'innovation always meets 
with some resistance. Some miserable plea is offered in favor 



CONSTRUCTION OF STABI.BS. 21 

of an old usage, merely to avoid open conviction of ignorance. 
Dark stables were introduced, not because men thought them 
the best , but because they had no inclination to purchase light, 
or because they thought the horse had no use for it. 

A horse was never known to thrive better for being kept in 
a dark stable. The dealer may hide his horse in darkness, 
and perhaps he may believe that they fatten sooner there than 
in the light of day. But he might as well tell the truth at 
once, and say that he wants to keep them out of sight till they 
arc ready for the market, ^^^len a horse is brought from a 
dark stable to the open air he sees ver}' indistinctly ; he stares 
about him, and carries his head hig'h, and he steps high. 
The horse looks as if he had a good deal of action and anima- 
tion. Dark stables may thus suit the purposes of dealers, but 
they are certainly not the most suitable for horses. They 
are said to injure the eyes. There is not perhaps another 
animal on the earth so liable to blindness as the horse. It 
can not be said with certainty tliat darkness is the cause ; but 
it is well known that the eyes suffer most frequently where 
there is no light. 

Whether a dark stable be pernicious to the eyes or not, it 
is always a bad stable. It has too many invisible holes and 
corners about it ever to be thoroughly cleaned. The gloomy 
dungeons in which coach and boat horses are so often im- 
mured, are always foul. The iiorses are attended by men 
who will not do their duty if they can neglect it. The dung 
and the urine lie rotting for weeks together, and contaminating 
the air till it is untit for use. The horses are never properly 
groomed. They can not be seen. One may fall lame, another 
sick, and no one know anything about them till they are 
brought to the door to commence a- journey. Accidents, 
choking, getting cast in the stall, tearing open a vein and such 
like, sometimes happen when the horse's Life may depend 
upon immediate assistance, which can not be rendered in 
the dark, or which darkness may conceal till assistance is too 
late. I speak not of what might occur, but of that which is 
common. 

All these things considered, it is evident that the stable 
ought to be well lighted, and that the expense attending it is 
a prudent outlay. When side-windows can not be con- 
veniently introduced, a portion of the hay-loft must be sacri- 
ficed, and light obtained from the roof. This in ordinary 
cases will not be greatly missed. Let it be well done if done 
at all. It is almost as expensive to put in a small window as 



2'2 STABLE ECONOMY. 

a large one ; and I believe it is more expensive to light a 
double-headed stable properly from the sides than from the 
roof. When the stalls are all on one side the case is dif- 
ferent, especially if the back wall be unconnected with any 
other building. Windows above the horses' head generally 
light the wrong side of the stable, and those at the ends can 
hardly be made to light more than one or two stalls. 

Windows may or may not be made to open. Some of them 
should open, in order that the stable may, upon certain occa- 
sions, receive an extraordinary airing. But for constant and 
necessary ventilation there must be apertures which can never 
be wholly closed. 

W^iNDow-SHUTTERs, in somc situations, are useful fortnree 
purposes. By darkening the stable they encourage a fatigued 
horse to rest through the day ; they keep out the flies in the 
hot days of summer ; and in winter they help to keep the 
stable warm. They may be made of wood, of basket-work, 
or of matting, according to the purpose for which they are 
wanted. In some stables the windows are removable, so that 
in summer they can be taken out and their place filled by a 
piece of basket-work or framed canvass, which may be wet 
in hot weather. The stables are thus kept cool ; the flies 
and the heat of the sun are excluded. Some horses are sadly 
annoyed by flies. They do not enter a dark stable. 

The Roof of the stable usually forms the floor of the hay- 
loft. In some of the farm stables there is no hay-loft. The 
outer roof is the roof of the stable, and is of thatch or tile, 
plastered or unplastered. " The most wholesome stables," 
says a popular, though a very superficial author, " are those 
where nothing intervenes between the roof of the building and 
the floor, and I have had occasion to observe that roofs made 
of unplastered tile, form the best mode of ventilation."* In 
the country, w4iere it is impossible to have the litter removed 
as it is soiled, and where the horses are not the worse of 
having a long coat, a roof of tile, plastered or unplastered, 
may aflx)rd all the shelter they require, while it favors the 
escape of efliuvia from the rotting litter, upon which the horses 
of a slovenly farmer are compelled to seek repose. But stables 
of this kind are not for horses of fast and laborious work. 
They are too cold. 

If the loft be above the stable, the ceiling must be nine 
feet from the ground, and if the stable contains more than 
four horses the ceiling must be higher. A height of from 
* White. 



CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 23 

twelve to fourteen feet is sufficient for the largest stable ; and 
the smallest ought not to be less than eight feet high. When loo 
lofty the stable is cold ; when too low, it requires large ventila- 
tors, which create a current, not at all times safe or pleasant to 
the horses. Professor Coleman used to recommend a very low 
roof, about seven feet I think from the ground. I forget his 
reason. His own stable is so low that medicine can not be 
given to a horse in it without driving the crown of his head 
through the ceiling. It certainly is not right to have the roof 
so low. The height must vary from eight to fourteen feet, 
according to the number of horses. When there is no loft 
above, the height should be rather greater ; in summer the 
slates or the tiles become hot, and make the stable like an 
oven ; and in winter when snow lies on the roof, the stable is 
like an ice-house. The hay-loft, when over the stable, should 
have no communication with it. 

The Floor. — In Scotland the floor of the stable is almost 
universally laid either with whinstone or freestone, or partly 
with the one and partly with the other. Very often, the gang- 
way and about one half of the stall are paved, while the other 
half of the stall is causewayed. In a few cases hard bricks 
are employed, and arranged on edge ; the first expense is 
less, but bricks, even when well selected and properly laid, 
are not sufficiently durable, especially under heavy horses. 
So long as they remain in order, however, they make a very 
good floor, which always affords firm foot-hold, but I do not 
recommend it. 

Pavement is apt to get slippery and make the horses fall 
when rising, or when leaving the stable. I once saw a horse 
break his thighbone in rising from a paved stall, but there 
was no fixed partition between the stalls, and very little litter 
on the ground, otherwise it is probable the accident would 
not have happened. In the same stable several other horses 
have been lamed in the same way and from the same causes. 

A Paved Floor, however, when properly grooved, is the 
best both for gangway and stalls ; it is durable and easily 
kept clean. To prevent the horse from slipping, it ought to 
be furrowed by concave grooves about three inches wide and 
one deep. At the gangway these should run across the stable, 
and in the stall they should run parallel with the partitions. 
Both should slope to the gutter. In some stables these grooves 
have others running directly or obliquely across them. They 
are rarely three inches wide in any stable ; most frequently 
they do not exceed one inch. When narrow they require to 



24 STABLE ECONOMY. 

be numerous. They need not be so wide at bottom as at top 
When tbo narrow they are always full of dirt. The grooves 
may be four inches apart. 

A Causewayed Floor is the next best : and, when properly 
laid, it is more durable than a freestone floor. Instead of the 
usual blocks of stone, of all shapes and all sizes, some rising 
and some sinking from the general level, the stones ought to 
be square, and neatly joined, having no large intervals filled 
with sand, which alternately receiv-es and rejects the urine, 
keeping the air constantly saturated with its unwholesome 
vapors. Causeway, however, is never so cleanly as freestone 
flags, and it is difficult to get it sufficiently grooved. When 
laid in the ordinary, anyhow way, a causewayed floor is 
dirty, uneven, slippery, and easily torn up by the horses' feet, 
or undermined by rats. Pebbles or Dutch clinkers are often 
employed as stable flooring ; but I can say nothing about 
them, for in this country their place is supplied by whin- 
stone. 

In former times the stalls were laid with planks of oak, in 
which holes were bored that led the urine into underground 
drains. This mode of flooring has gone entirely out of use, 
and there appears no reason for reviving it. The ancient 
writers complain that it produced many accidents from the 
horse slipping,4^nd from the planks starting out of place. 

[The climate in Great Britain is so much damper than 
that of America, that the objections there to a plank floor 
will not hold good here. Lumber is also very much dearei 
there than here, which is another serious objection with the 
English to wooden floors. 

Earth Floors. — One of the best kinds of slable-floors, 
where the soil is a dry one, is made of a composition of lime, 
ashes, and clay, mixed up in equal parts into a mortar, and 
spread twelve to fifteen inches deep over the surface of the 
ground forming the bottom of the stables. It will dry in a 
week or ten days, and makes a very smooth fine flooring, 
particularly safe, easy, and agreeable for horses to stand on, 
and free from all the objections of stone, brick, and wood ; 
and were it not that a sharp-shod horse is apt to cut it up, 
we should consider it as quite perfect. When the corks on 
the shoes are sharp, more pains should be taken in littering 
'he floor to a greater depth, which would tend to its preserva- 
tion. When much cut and worn, the flooring is easily broken 
jp with a pick-axe, softened with water, and again relaid. 
The stables of Mr. Gibbons of New Jersey, are floored with 



CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 25 

the above composition, and he informs us that he highly ap- 
proves of them on his dry soil. Indian-rubber has been used 
in England for floors and found to answer well. It has been 
in use at the royal stables at Woolwich for two years past. 
It is soft to the feet, comfortable to lie on, and from its yield- 
ing nature never injures the knees, hocks, or pasterns. It 
is easily cleaned, thie urine runs off freely, and suffers no 
collection underneath the floor to taint the air.] 

Drains. — These are seldom thought of. But, in some 
situations, to have a dry and sweet stable, they are absolutely 
necessary. In short stables, having only four or five horses 
in a row, underground drains are useful only for draining the 
foundations. On a stable not exceeding twenty-four or thirty 
feet in length, sufficient declivity can be obtained on the sur- 
face for removing the urine. But in a stable fifty or sixty 
feet long, a gutter is not so easily procured. The declivity 
necessary for carrying off the water, raises one end of the 
stable to an inconvenient height. A drain should be sunk. 
This may receive the water either from each stall, or from a 
grating placed near the centre of the stable, which, in the 
latter case, must slope from each end. Goodwin recom- 
mends a cast-iron grating near the centre, or rather toward 
the entrance of each stall, which should incline a little from 
all sides. The grate is in four pieces, resting upon ridges of 
stone, and having the bars so close that the calkins of the 
shoes can not pass between them. They have something like 
this at the Veterinary College, the only place in which I re- 
member to have seen anything of the kind. The contrivance 
answers the purpose very well ; it carries off the urine by 
sunk drains, and at once, and it saves the litter. The object 
of this plan is to get rid of the inclination usually given to the 
floor of the stall. The cost, however, is greater than the 
mischief it is supposed to prevent. 

When the urine is to be saved, it may be carried to the 
manure-pit, or to a cess-pool outside the stable, and emptied 
occasionally by a pump. The end of the drain should never 
be exposed to the air. It ought to have a trap-door, which 
will open by the pressure of the water, and shut when the 
water has passed. When this is neglected, cold air rushes 
through the gratings and blows upon the horses' heels, or 
noxious vapors arise from the cess-pool. 

In some stables there is no contrivance for carrying oft' the 
water. Part is soaked up by the litter, part sinks into the 
floor and the remainder, which is the most acrimonio\Js, 



26 



STABLE ECONOMY. 



evaporates and mingles with the air. These stables of course 
are always damp and foul. Their inhabitants are liable to 
more than their share of disease at all times, and especially 
when an unhealthy season prevails. 



Fio. 2. 




Fig. 2 gives a view of the stable erected by the late Mr. 
James Donaldson. The breadth excepted, it is a perfect 
model for a stable of two stalls. One half of the stall floor 
is laid with brick ; the other half is covered by a single slab 
of freestone, which is grooved longitudinally and transversely, 
and perforated at each intersection of the grooves. The per- 
forations conduct the inine to an under- ground drain, which 
can be cleaned in its whole extent by lifting the channel- 
grating. This seems to be a much better contrivance than 
the iron-grating, since it is more extensive, less costly, less 
likely to give or to receive injury, and requiring no declivity 
on any par. of the stall. In other respects this stable is very 
neat. It has a boiler behind the inside stall ; a cupboard, a 
window well placed, the mangers and travis moveable. It 
is only twelve feet wide ; if copied, the gangway should be 
three feet broader. In this cut, the manger is shown too low 
and the rack too- high. 

Declivity of the Stall. — The ordinary mode of draining the 
stall is to make it slope from the head to a gutter, about ten 
feet from the manger. The inclination varies from two to 
three inches on the ten feet This has been objected to, but, 



CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 27 

as it appears to me, without any good reason. It is said that 
the flexor muscles and back sinews are put upon the stretch, 
to such a degree that they are injured. It is not easy to be- 
lieve this. As far as I have been able to ascertain, no one 
has ever seen a horse lamed in this way. The matter might 
be decided by experiment. By making a horse stand for a 
week or two upon a declivity somewhat greater than that re-' 
quired for draining the stall, it would be seen whether or not 
it is possible to make him lame in this way. My own stable 
has a fall of four inches on the ten feet, but it has never pro- 
duced any injury to the back sinews. That these parts are 
put upon the stretch when the horse is standing on a de- 
clivity, need not be denied ; but the tension is never in an 
injurious degree. In proof of the contrary, it is urged that 
we feel pain in the back of our limbs when standing with the 
toes elevated ; and that the horse, feeling the same uneasi- 
ness, endeavors to relieve himself by standing as far in the 
gangway as his collar will permit. It need only be men- 
tioned that pain is not produced in our limbs by standing in 
any stall, however much it slopes. The horse stands back 
merely to look around him, or to avoid the foul vapor rising 
from the litter which lies under his manger. He does the 
same when there is no declivity in his stall. 

White objects to a sloping stall, and concludes by recom 
mending that the inclination be no greater than one inch or 
the yard. Not one stable in ten has more, and few havf 
quite so much. 

The contrivances to avoid inclination are useless ; there is 
no need for them. It may be safely concluded that the ordi- 
nary declivity is not in the least pernicious. Some old an(J 
tender-footed horses, indeed, would be all the better of having 
the stall more than usually elevated in front. It would save 
the fore feet in a slight degree, and enable the horse to rise 
with more ease. Dealers' stables are often raised in front to 
a greater elevation than draining requires. The horses look 
taller and higher in the withers when viewed in these stalls. 

Precautions against Rats. — In laying the floor, some 
measures should be adopted to prevent or check the inroads 
of these vermin. They are very destructive about stables. 
They undermine the pavement, eat the wood-work, choke thft 
drains, and rob the horse of his food. Where they abound 
in great numbers they know the feeding hours, and they watch 
the departure of the man after food is placed in the manger, 
which they enter in a drove and manage to eat as much aa 



23 STABLE ECONOMY. 

tlio horse, who seems to care little about them. Hellebore 
or arsenic, it is said, will kill them in great numbers when 
mingled with a warm malt mash and placed in the manger. 
The horse of course must not partake of this. He must be 
in the stall with his head tied securely to the rack. Soap 
waste is sometimes laid around the foundations of the outside 
walls. They are unwilling to burrow through this, but they 
will, if very anxious to get in. Some rough or sharp material 
should be laid under the pavement, and around the walls on 
the outside. 

Partitions between the Horses. — In some parts of 
England horses are permitted to stand two and two, without 
any partition between them. This rarely happens in Scot- 
land. He is " poor indeed" who can not afford a stall to 
each horse. When two are standing together, the one is 
always doing the other some mischief, either accidentally or 
intentionally. The strongest robs the weakest both of his 
food and of his rest ; while one is lying the other will tram- 
ple or lie down on his companion ; and mares, while standing 
double, seldom or never urinate till one is removed. Two 
that have toiled together for many a day, have fed from the 
same manger, and crouched under the lash of the same driver, 
are generally good friends, forbearing, and sympathizing. 
Still accidents will happen in the dark, or when strangers are 
put together, or one will fall off, become dull or irritable when 
separated from an old companion. Each ought to have a 
stall to himself. Cows do well enough in pairs, or in rows 
without any separation. But they have no work demanding 
full and uninterrupted repose. They lie straight, upon their 
breast, with their legs bent under them ; not like the horse, 
who seeks repose in various positions, often lying on his side 
with his legs stretched, and his body across the stall, keeping 
his neighbor standing, lest he should do an injury in lying 
down. 

Separation is effected by means of standing bales, gang- 
way bales, and travises. The latter form the best, the most 
complete partition, but in certain situations bales are to be 
preferred. 

Standing Bales are round bars or posts of wood, about three 
inches in diameter, and eight feet long. Each extremity is 
furnished with a few iron links, by which the bale is sus- 
pended to the head and to the heel-posts. 

Sometimes ihe bales are of cast-iron. They arc more 
durable, but they are costly, easily broken, and apt to do in- 



CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 
Fig. 3. 



29 




jury when they chance tO lall upon a horse's legs or back, 
Well-seasoned oak forms a bale of sufficient durability. 
Two or three of cast-iron may be kept and placed beside 
those horses that are much disposed to bite and destroy the 
wooden bale. 

One is placed between each pair of horses. It should be 
three feet or three feet and a half from the ground. The 
suspending chains should be about three or four inches long, 
so that the bale may yield as the horse comes against it in 
turning round. Bales are employed in almost all the cavalry 
stables. There, they are furnished with a contrivance which 
merits notice. It prevents accidents, which are very com- 
mon in baled stables. The extremity next the manger is not, 
or need not, be removable ; the other, next the heel-post, is 
attached in such a way that when a horse gets under the 
bale, and attempts to rise, he pushes it upward, and it loses 
its connexion with the post ; or when he happens to cast his 
leg over the bale, it can instantly be lowered to the ground 
without lifting the horse. 

Fig. 4 represents the means by which this is effected ; a 
is the bale ; b a curved bolt by which it is attached to the 
post. This turns round upon the post, like the hand of a 
clock. It is retained in its usual place by the ring c, which 



30 



STABLE ECONOMY. 
Fig. 4. 




slides upon tlie bracket d. When the bale is to be let down, 
the ring is raised, and the bolt h turns and frees the bale. 
The engraving, Fig, 3, shows the manner in which the bale 
is released when a horse gets under it. An iron bale, when 
thrown off in this way, is likely to be broken, or to injure the 
next horse. This engraving, I may mention, was taken from 
one of the cavalry stables at Glasgow barracks. 

There are Objections to Bales. — They permit the horses to 
bite, and to strike each other, whether in play or in mischief, 
and some harm is often done in this way. Horses that are 
idle, playful, or vicious, are constantly doing each other some 
injury ; and those that are at full work, and in want of rest, 
can not fully obtain it in a baled stable. Then, accidents 
will occur from the horses getting under or over the bales, 
and one will rob another of his corn, and infectious diseases 
will spread rapidly and generally. These evils are sufficient 
to forbid bales whenever it is possible to have the horses 
more perfectly separated. Baled stables are not at all fit for 
valuable horses, and they are the worst of all for a sick horse. 
It is nothing in their favor that the cavalry horses stand in 
them. There, a man is in almost constant attendance upon 
each horse, to watch him while feeding, and to correct him 
when mischievous, or to assist him in difficulty. There are 
plenty of spare stalls and loose boxes for the sick, the lame, 
and the vicious, and the veterinary surgeon is always at 
hand to remedy or pre^'ent the worst consequences of acci- 



CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 



31 



dents : and the horses do not require the undisturbed repose 
60 necessary to horses in full work. They have nothing 
to do. 

In Favor of Bales, it is urged that they are less costly than 
travises, and that, in a large stable, one or two more stand- 
ings may be obtained. They have no other advantage. The 
original cost of fitting up the stable is considerably less. The 
saving, however, is that of a man alive only to the outlay of 
the present moment. In two or three years the evils of a 
baled stable may produce the loss of twice, or, it may be, ten 
times the sum required for travises. When a space of five 
and a half or six feet can not be allowed to each horse, bales 
are to be preferred to travises. They give the tired horse 
some chance of stretching his legs. He would have none if 
he were confined lo such a narrow stall by a fixed travis. 
All the additional room that can be thus obtained is just one 
stall upon every ten. An apartment that would easily hold 
ten horses is rendered unsafe, uncomfortable to the whole 
number, merely that it may hold one more. This is suf- 
ficiently absurd. Where horses are expected to retain the 
vigor of perfect health, and perform their work with ease, 
they must have room to obtain complete repose. They are 
worth very little if they can not work for this much, and the 
owner must be in miserable circumstances if he can not 
afibrd it. 

Gangway Bales are employed only in the stables of very 
valuable horses. They are merely bars of wood stretching 
from the heel-post to the back wall. Two and sometimes 
three are placed between every two horses. They prevent 
a horse from leaving his stall, though he should break loose. 
He can not wander over the stable and injure his neighbors. 
They are removeable. They are, or ought always to be, in 
place when the stables are shut up, even for a single hour, 
and when the groom is dressing the horse with his head free. 
Some horses never break loose, and never attempt it. Stable- 
men are apt to trust them too much. They make no use of 
the gangway bales ; it ought to be a standing rule of the 
stable, that these bales be always in their place. On the eve 
of an engagement, a racehorse may break loose and receive 
an injury sufficient to throw him aside. The men are suf- 
ficiently attentive and vigilant at these times ; but they ought 
to be equally so at all times. 

Travises are fixed partitions made of wood, and separating 
tlie horses se completely that one is not peri.litted to injure 



32 STABLE ECONOMY. 

or annoy another. It is the kind of partition generally em 
ployed in Scotland. We have few baled stables. The 
iravis has been made of stone, of Arbroath pavement, with 
what intention I can not guess. They are very often too 
slight and too low, sometimes too short and sometimes too 
long. When oak wood is employed, the travis need not ex- 
ceed one inch in thickness, the edges being feathered with 
iron. Made of fir, it is usually one and a half inch thick ; 
but this is too little. When two or two and a half, the travis 
is stout and durable. Like all the woodwork of stables, it 
ought to be of the best Memel timber, well seasoned. In 
length it may vary from four to nine feet ; the latter is the 
- sual measure for a full-sized horse in a roomy stable. Under 
;ight or nine feet, the longer the travis, the less likely is the 
horse to strike his neighbor. 

But room must be left in the gangway for turning horses 
out, and for passing those which are in. In a narrow, and 
especially in a double-headed stable, it is a great error to 
make the travis too long. Horses always like to see what is 
going on around them ; and when the travis is so long and 
high that they can not see about them, they stand into the 
gangway and block up the passage. When less than seven 
feet, the travis is rather short, but a short stall is not so in- 
convenient as a narrow gangway. Nine feet is the greatest 
length required for any horse, but this may be abridged if the 
stable be narrow. In general, a double-headed stable should 
have the travises only one third the breadth of the stable ; in 
single-headed stables they may be one half of the whole 
breadth. In other words, the gangway should be as broad 
as the stall is long. If the stable be much above the ordina- 
ry breadth, of course the travis need not exceed nine feet. 

What is called the quarter travis, is a short partition about 
four feet long. It prevents the horses from biting, and from 
stealing ea zh. other's food, but it affords no protection against 
the heels, nor does it permit the horse to enjoy his rest It 
is better than none, and better than a longer one, if the stable 
be no more than twelve feet broad. 

In height the travis should be about seven feet at the head 
and five at the heels. When lower, it permits the horses to 
bite and tease each other, and to cast their hind-legs over it. 
About four feet is the usual height behind ; but I have seen a 
horse throw his leg over one that was four feet six inches. 
Many serious accidents happen in this way. There is no 
objection to having the travis high. The upper edge of the 



CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES 33 

travis should be bound with iron, to prevent the horses eating 
it. Plate-iron answers the purpose well enough. It should 
cover the edge to the depth of two or three inches. 

The Stall-Posts, that is. the posts by which the partition 
is bound, are usually made of wood, but sometimes of cast-iron. 
Those next the manger, termed the head-posts, rise five or 
six inches above the travis, or up to the ceiling. That at the 
entrance, termed the heel-post, should be round, or octagonal, 
not square. The corners injure the legs of a kicking horse, 
and are easily knocked ofi'. These posts are often no higher 
than the travis, and surmounted by a ball, or some other 
figure, intended for ornament. But in many stables the heel- 
post rises to the roof, its extremities being square, the lower 
sunk in a stone, and the upper attached to the joists. These 
are better than the short posts ; they keep the travis firmer, 
and they admit of pillar reins at the proper heights. They 
are useful for hanging harness, and they afford convenience 
for slinging a horse, should that ever be necessary. The 
short posts should be round at top, and not more than two 
inches above the level of the travis. The surmounting orna- 
ment is merely an encumbrance : it is in the horse's way 
when he is turning round. When made of wood, these short 
posts require to be sunk about three feet in the ground, char- 
red at the ends, and surrounded by masonry three feet in 
diameter. When made of cast-iron, they are attached by 
means of screw-bolts to a large stone below the surface. 
Short posts, whether of wood or iron, are never so firm as 
those which rise to the roof of the stable. 

In stables intended for valuable fast-working horses each 
side of the post should have a ring for pillar-reins. These 
are used when the horse is required to stand reversed in his 
stall. Coach-horses are reversed, turned with their heads 
out, for half-an-hour before taking the road. They are turned 
that they may not go out with a full stomach ; they are turned 
A^hen the groom is cleaning the head and neck. The pillar- 
reins, one on each side, confine the horse, prevent him from 
turning, or leaving his stall, and prevent him from biting while 
under stable operations. The rings should be about six feet 
from the ground. W^hen short heel-posts are employed, the 
ring must be on the top of them. 

The width of the Stall, I have already said, should 
vary from five and a half to six feet. For small ponies five 
feet, or less, may be suflicient ; and for very large dray-horses, 
ihe stall may b© six feet six inches. Tho stall is roomy at 



84 STABLE ECONOMY. 

six feet, and for horses about fifteen, or fifteen and a half 
hands high, it may be two or three inches narrower. When 
too broad, the horse stands across it, or turns round with his 
head out and his tail in. When too narrow, he can not lie in 
that position which is most favorable to repose, and he is apt 
to have his loins injured when rashly or improperly turned 
round. The horse should always be backed out, not turned, 
when the stall is too little for him. 

Rest, in the recumbent position, is of more importance to 
working-horses than many stablemen appear to be aware of. 
They seem not to regard a narrow stall as a great evil. Some 
even lodge two horses all night, after a day of hard work, in 
one stall, only six feet wide ; and, as if it were a matter of 
indifference whether the horse stand or lie, they expect to 
find him in condition for work next day. It should always 
be remembered that a horse can not do full work, unless he 
have a good bed. He may be cramped in a narrow stall, 
where he is never permitted to stretch his limbs, or he may 
be compelled to stand all night, and still he may continue to 
do a good deal of work ; but sooner or later, abuse of this kind 
tells its own tale. It ruins the legs and the feet, it shortens 
the horse's pace by at least a mile in the hour ; and though 
he may do his work, yet that work would be done with more 
ease were he better treated in the stable. In addition to all 
this, much standing produces gourdy legs and greasy heels. 

Hay-Racks. — Ordinary hay-racks are made of wood ; they 
are wide as the stall, have the front sloping, and the back 
perpendicular. Racks of this kind are giving way to others 
made of cast-iron, and much smaller. As far as the horse is 
concerned, it matters little whether iron or wood be used. It 
is said that his lips are apt to receive injury from splinters 
which occasionally start on the wood ; but this happens very 
rarely. Iron racks are at first more costly ; but in the end 
they are the cheapest. They require no repairs ; at the ex- 
piration of ten years they are nearly as valuable as at the 
beginning, and they are easily made clean, a matter of con- 
siderable importance when infectious diseases prevail. They 
are never well made. The spars are placed too far apart, and 
they all slope too much in the front. It would be easy to 
make them closer and of a more suitable form. 

The face of the rack ought to be perpendicular ; in order 
that the hay may always lie within the horse's reach, the 
back of the rack ought to form an inclined plane. The spars 
ought to be round, and two inches apart. For fast- working 



CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 35 

horses, the rack is large enough if it hold seven pounds of hay. 
The largest size need not hold more than double or treble 
this quantity. The bottom of the rack should be eighteen or 
twenty inches from the top of the manger. The best situa- 
tion is midway between the partitions. But in this place, a 
perpendicular front, flush with the head wall, can not be ob- 
tained without recesses. 

In reference to situation, hay-racks may be termed front, 
side, and under racks. The first is that which is elevated on 
the wall in front of the horse ; the second, that which is 
placed in one corner ; and the third is on a level with the 
manger. 

The Front-Rack usually has a sloping face ; and sometimes 
the inclination is so great, and the rack so high, that the 
horse has to turn his head almost upside down every time he 
applies to it. When the stable is not sufficiently wide, or tlie 
walls sufficiently thick, to admit of a pappendicular face, the 
front of the rack must be inclined ; but the inclination need 
not be great. A rack having the face upright and the back 
sloping, is shown in Fig. 10. When the spars are of iron, 
this is the best rack. The next best is represented in Fig. 2. 
It answers perfectly well for all kind of horses. It is thirty 
inches wide, twenty-four deep, and nineteen from front to back. 
The spars are round, one and a quarter inches thick, and two and 
a half inches apart. Each rack should have a ring at bottom for 
securing the horse's head. When tied to the spars he is apt 
to bend or break them. Another very good front-rack is 
shown in Fig. 3 ; but it is too small for large horses, though 
suitable enough for fast- workers. 

The Side-Rack may be placed in either corner, on the right 
or on the lefi ; but when filled from the stable, it is most con- 
venient on the left side. When made of wood, the side-rack 
usually has uprighl round spars, arranged in a semi-circular 
form. (See Fig. li.) The back is an inclined plane. The 
bottom on the outside is boarded up, so that the horse may not 
injure his head against the corner. This is the best kind of 
rack for narrow and low stables. It takes nothing off the 
width of the stable and allows the horse to stand quite within 
the stall when eating his hay. The front might easily be 
made of cast iron ; the back and bottom of wood ; or the in- 
clined back might be dispensed with, and it would thus be both 
cheap and durable. As usually made (see Fig. 6), it has all the 
awkwardness of the old-fashioned sloping front, and it is gener- 
ally too small. 



36 



STABLE ECONOMY. 



The TJnder-Rack is sometimes nothing but a large deep 
manger, having a few spars across the top, placed so far apart 
that the horse's head can pass between them, and let his 
muzzle to the bottom. This is used when the stable is too 
low to admit an elevated rack. It is a poor substitute, trouble- 
some to fill, and permitting the horse to waste his hay by scatter- 
ing it among his litter, and spoiling it with his breath. Some- 
times the under-rack differs not in form from the ordinary 
wooden one. It is three feet long, occupying half the breadth 
of the stall, and having its upper border level with the manger, 
which occupies the other half of the stall. It is sometimes 
sparred across the top, but most usually open ; its front is 
sparred, sloping, and reaching to within a foot of the ground 
The object of this is to permit the horse to eat while lying. 
Few appear much inclined to take advantage of the contrivance. 
Some do ; but most horses eat what they want before lying 
down. It allows the horse to breathe upon his hay, and to 
throw it on the ground ; and when sparred at top, he can not 
get to the bottom of the rack, except from the front, and the 
front he can hardly apply to without lying down. The under- 
rack, though generally made of wood, and with an incli?*ed 
face, is sometimes of cast-iron, and upright. 



Fig. 5. 




CONSTRUCTION OF STAF.l.ES. 37 

Fig. 5 represents a low rack and two iron iTianj[,ers, one 
for grain, another for water. It is taken from tlie stables of 
Mr. Johnstone, of Blair Lodge, near Falkirk. He has about 
ten stalls fitted up in this manner. The bottom of the rack, 
I think, comes too near the ground. The up])er border ought 
to stand at the height of three feet eight inches ; when lower, 
these under-racks, particularly in a lofty stable, are very 
dangerous. The horses may get their fore-feet into them. 

In some stables there are no racks. The hay is thrown on 
the ground, or it is cut and placed in the manger. The first 
is a wasteful practice, and not common ; the horse destroys 
more hay than he eats. The second, that of cutting the hay 
into chaff, is advisable only under certain circumstances. 
At times hay is so cheap, that the quantity saved does not pay 
the cost of converting it into chaff. Whether that be the case 
or not, it is proper in large establishments to have racks in 
some of the stalls. This will be understood by referring to 
the article on Preparing Food. 

The usual mode of filling the huy-rach is none of the best. 
When the loft is over the stable, as it always is in towns, the 
hay is put into the rack by a hole directly over it communica- 
ting with the loft. For certain reasons these holes ought to 
be abolished, and in a great many stables they are. The 
moist foul air of the stable passes through them ; it mingles 
with the hay and contaminates it. The dust and the seed 
which are thrown down with the hay, fall upon the mane, 
into the ears and the eyes, and annoy the horse as well as 
soil him. Hence, he learns a trick of standing back, or break- 
ing his halter ; and horses have been seriously injured by the 
hay-fork slipping from the hand of a careless groom and fall- 
ing upon the head or neck. There should be no communi- 
cation between the loft and the stable. The hay can be rolled 
into a bundle and put into the rack from the stable. It can 
be thrown in at the top. The upper spars of low racks, when 
they have any, should be fixed to a frame opening on hinges ; 
it saves the time consumed in thrusting it through the spars. 
The other racks are all quite open at top, and the hay is 
thrown in by a fork. 

[The most common method in America is, to construct the 
barns with a space or hall of about fourteen feet in width be- 
tween the stalls which face each other, and running through 
the whole width of the building. The hay is then thrown 
from the loft on to the hall floor, and thence into the racks. 
This space acts as an admirable ventilator, and is otherwise 
4 



iJ8 STABLE ECONOMY. 

useful for a variety of purposes. The floors of the lofts ovei 

the stables are made so close, either by double layers of boards 
or a single layer grooved and tongued, as to prevent the seed 
and dust falling on to the horses below. We think this ar- 
rangement better than any we saw in England. In cities, 
however, in consequence of the high price of building lots, this 
plan can not so well be adopted. Yet this need not prevent 
stables being made much higher between joints than is usually 
practised, and giving windows and cross gauze-wire holes 
sufficient for ventilation, constructed on the same principle as 
the respirator for the human subject,] 

Mangkrs. — The trough in which the horse receives his 
grain is termed a manger. It is made of wood, or of cast- 
iron. Stone has been employed, but it forms a bulky clumsy 
manger, and is not in any respect superior to iron. In Scot- 
land the mangers are usually made of wood, and extend the 
whole breadth of the stall. In many places these are giving 
place to others made of cast-iron, which are durable, and, 
when properly made, more suitable. Wooden mangers are 
in constant want of repairs, and they are never perfectly sweet 
and clean. Greater durability is given to them by covering 
the breast with thick plate-iron ; but no contrivance nor any 
care can keep them always clean, especially where the food 
is often boiled. The wood imbibes the moisture, and the 
manger becomes musty ; it has a sour, fetid smell, which 
prevents many delicate feeders from eating, and disgusts all 
horses. The iron manger lasts for ever. A little care keeps 
it clean, and it is never sour when empty. The short iron 
manger is not much dearer than the long wooden one, and its 
superior durability renders it ultimately much cheaper. 

There is no occasion for having it so long as the stall is 
broad. Wooden mangers, I belieA'^e, are generally made of 
this length in order that they may be securely fixed. The 
horses are tied to them, and their ends are supported by the 
travises. Iron mangers are usually about thirty or thirty-six 
inches long, "and there is no need for having them longer. In 
many stables, however, they are six feet long, which adds 
greatly to their cost, without rendering them more useful. 
They are seldom sufficiently deep, particularly for horses that 
receive chaff or roots. Nine or ten inches in the ordinary 
depth ; two or three inches more would improve them. In 
breadth they should be twelve inches, which is about one 
inch wider than usual. All this is inside measure. The 
smaller-sized iron manger answers well enough for small 



constructiojnt o? stables. 39 

horses, or indeed for any kind of horses, so long as they re- 
ceive no manger food, but grain and beans. When builder 
articles are to be eaten from the manger, the usual size is 
found to be rather inconvenient. It holds the food, but the 
horse throws it out when turning it over in search of that 
which he likes best. There is no objection to a manger of 
greater depth and width. Shallow mangers require two or 
three spars across them, to prevent the horse from scattering 
his grain. In general two are sufficient. They should be 
placed near the ends, and across the top, or just within the 
manger. Round iron bars, one inch thick, are better than 
wooden spars. • If these have been omitted in the original 
construction of an iron manger, substitutes of hardwood may 
be wedged in so firmly, that the horse can not extract them 
with his teeth. When placed in front of the horse, the man- 
ger should be provided with a ring for the collar rein. A long 
manger, whether of wood or iron, may have two rings, each 
fourteen inches from the travis. The edge of the manger 
should be thick, that it may be strong, and blunt, not doing 
much injury when the horse strikes it with his head. Neither 
a wooden nor an iron manger should be flat at bottom. It 
should be concave within, convex without. The sharp cor- 
ner of a flat-bottomed manger injures the horse about the head 
when rising, and about the legs or knees when he is pawing, 
and, in proportion to its size and weight, it holds less than the 
concave manger. 

Some mangers are made to remove. This is particularly 
desirable with v/ooden mangers. They can be taken out, 
cleaned, and exposed to the air. But all the cleaning an iron 
manger requires can be given without shifting it. It is safest 
when fixed. Iron mangers are easily secured against a stone 
wall, by means of cramps and lead ; but they are not so firm on 
a wall of brick. Care must be taken to have them fast ; they are 
very weighty, and whe.i the horse is attached to them, it is 
not a little matter that holds them. They will be broken, and 
the horse injured should they fall. On a brick wall, an iron 
bolt passing completely through, and secured by a screw-nut, 
aflbrds the greatest security. The iron racks are sometimes 
attached in the same way. They have as much need to be 
strongly fixed as the mangers, for the horse is often tied to 
them. 

The manger is always placed too low Professor Cole- 
man, and some others, direct that it be put upon the ground. 
Nature, they say, intended the horse to gather his food from 



40 STABLE ECONOMY. 

the surface of the soil, and for this reason \ie oiis^ht not to have 
it elevated. With as much force they might object to the use 
of chairs, tables, and beds, in our own dwelling-houses. They 
do not attempt to show that the horse sufiers any inconveni- 
ence by feeding from a high manger, or that he likes better 
to eat off the ground. God made it easy but not necessary 
for him to do so. Before domestication he may be indifferent 
about the situation of his food ; but every groom knows that 
a stabled horse likes to have both his grain and his water held 
to a level with his head. There is no reason whatever for 
having the mangers low, but there is reason for having them 
high. When too low, the horse can not feed so easily, and 
he is apt to receive injury by stepping into the manger, or by 
setting his feet on its edge, and, when lying, it is in his way. 

The top of the manger ought to stand between three feet 
six inches and four feet from the ground. For horses about 
fifteen hands it may be three feet six or eight inches ; for 
ponies it must be lower in proportion to their height ; for the 
very tallest horse it does not require to be more than four feet 
high. When too high, the horse can not get his muzzle to 
the bottom ; when too low, he is very apt to get his fore-feet 
into it. This last accident happens so often, and so frequently 
lames the horse, that it is rather surprising a low manger 
should be so common. The manger, indeed, is not blamed so 
often as the horse, who is chastised and tied down, or sold off as 
incurably mischievous. It would surely be an easy matter to 
raise the manger to its proper height. Horses that like to 
see about them, are most prone to the trick of jumping into it. 

A short manger may be placed either directly in front of the 
horse, or in one corner. It is better to have it in the latter 
situation, on the right side, supposing the rack to be placed on 
the left. When in front, it is apt to incommode the horse as 
he is lying down or rising up. Iron mangers (see Fig. 6), 
of small dimensions, are sometimes made of a triangular form 
to fi* into corners. They do well enough to hold a feed of 
oats, out they are all a great deal too small for the mixed food 
which is now given to many horses. 

A long manger, long as the stall is broad, has a space below 
it unoccupied, save by litter, which, when not perfectly free 
from moisture, ought never to be placed in this situation. To 
prevent a careless groom from putting the litter here, and to 
prevent the horse from getting his head below the manger and 
hurting himself when rising, this vacancy ought to be boarded 
up. The boarding may slope from the top of the m«>n§er down- 



CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 
Fig. 6. 



41 




ward to the ground, near or close to the wall. This also pre 
vents the horse from cutting his knees against the manger, 
should it have a flat bottom. Short, or corner mangers have 
less space below them, but it is as well to have them enclosed. 

In some stables a drawer serves the purposes of a manger. 
It is made of wood ; it holds little more than one measure of 
oats ; and it slides into a recess in the wall, exactly like a 
table-drawer. It has springs or catches, which keep it in or 
out. It is pulled out only when the horse is to eat, and it is 
shut up whenever he has done. It is said that horses never 
learn to crib-bite when fed in this way. The drawer-man- 
ger, however, is little patronised. I have seen only one. It 
IS doubtful whether it answers the intention with which it has 
been invented. 

Water-Manger. — Sometimes two mangers are placed in 
each stall — one for water, and another for grain. It is said 
that a horse drinks least when he has water constantly before 
him ; and, if this be true, it is certainly desirable that he 
should never want it. But, I think, we are still in need of 
more experiments to decide this point It is beyond doubt 

4* 



12 STABLE ECONOMY. 

that a horse who has water always within reach, will nevel 
take so much as to hurt himself ; but it is doubtful whether he 
can be ready at all times to work. 

When a water-trough is introduced, it ought ..o be so con- 
trived that it can be easily filled and easily em^ded. After 
standing a certain time, it becomes nauseously warm ; the 
horse plays with it, washing his muzzle ; and tke vegetable 
matter which falls into it is soon decomposed, ar.d the water 
becomes imfit for use. The trough ought to be connected 
with a pipe at the bottom, which will carry off the water when 
opened, by lifting the plug or turning the stopcock... This is 
important. If the groom have to carry the manger k its con- 
tents to the door, the supply of fresh water will oe often 
neglected. The stables first built by Mr. Laing at Edinburgh, 
have water-mangers in each stall. The water is supplied by 
a pipe running into the manger, and covered with an iron slide 
to keep the horse's teeth off the stopcock. As far as I re- 
member, there is no means of emptying the trough, without 
lifting out its contents, or carrying away the manger. The 
new stable wants the water-trough — so that, I suppose, it has 
not been found of much service. I believe they are worse 
than useless — unless provided with a pipe to take away the 
soiled water, and another to bring the fresh. 

Water-mangers must be made of iron. Lead is too soft, 
and wood is altogether unfit for the purpose. They should 
be cleaned every day ; not merely emptied, but well scrubbed. 
Vegetable matter falls into the water and covers the manger 
with a glutinous slime, which soils every fresh supply, and 
which can be removed only by a good deal of rubbing with a 
brush or hard wisp. Loose boxes or other places intended 
for sick horses, should be furnished with these water-troughs 
whether the stables are or are not. They should be deeper, 
and may be shorter than the grain-manger, but of the same 
width, and placed at the same elevation. 

■ VENTILATION OF STABLES. 

It is upward of eight-and-forty years since James Clarke 
of Edinburgh protested against close stables. He insisted 
that they were hot and foul, to a degree incompatible with 
health ; and he strongly recommended that they should be aired 
m such a manner as to have them always cool and sweet. 
Previous to the publication of Clarke's work, people never 
thought of admitting Iresh air into a stable ; they had no notion 



VENTILATION OF STABLES. 43 

of its use. In fact, they regarded it as highly pernicious, and 
did all they could to exclude.it. In those times, the gToom 
shut up his stable at night, and was careful to close every 
aperture by which a breath of fresh air might find admission. 
The keyhole and the threshold of the door were not forgotten. 
The horse was confined all night in a sort of hothouse, and 
in the morning the groom was delighted to find his stable 
warm as an oven. He did not perceive, or he did not notice, 
that the air was bad, charged with moisture, and with vapors 
more pernicious than moisture. It was oppressively warm, 
and that was enough for him. He knew nothing about its 
vitiation, or about its influence upon the horse's health. In a 
large crowded stable, where the horses were in constant and 
laborious work, there would be much disease. Glanders, 
grease, mange, blindness, coughs, and broken wind, would 
prevail, varied oceasionally by fatal inflammations. In 
another stable, containing fewer horses, and those doing little 
work, the principal diseases would be sore throats, bad eyes, 
swelled legs, and inflamed lungs, or frequent invasions of the 
influenza. But everything on earth would be blamed for 
these before a close stable. 

Since 1788, when Clarke's work was published, there has 
been a constant outcry against hot, foul stables. Every 
veterinary writer who has had to treat of diseases, has blamed 
the hot stables for producing at least one half of them. So 
far as the influence of these writers has extended, they have 
produced some effect. A ventilated stable is not now a won- 
der ; many are properly aired, and many more bear witness 
that ventilation has been attempted though not eflected. Farm 
stables are, in general, pretty well aired, and it is probable 
they always were so. Carelessness is to be thanked for thai. 
Apertures which admit air are there by accident. The cavalry 
stables used to be shamefully close. Before veterinary sur- 
geo IS were appointed to the army, ignorance had leave to 
practise all its tricks. Professor Coleman introduced a system 
of ventilation which must have saved the government many 
thousands of pounds every year. Like many other salutary 
innovations, it was at first strongly resisted. Much evil was 
predicted ; but diseases which used to destroy whole troops 
are now scarcely known in the army. 

Much has been said and written about ventilation, and a 
good deal has been done to produce it in places where till 
lately it was never thought of. But still very many stables 
continue to be badly irentilated. The blame belongs chiefly 



44 'STABLE ECG OMT. 

to the architect. Few stabl j-bui. ders think of providing ap- 
ertures for the express purpose ^f ventilation. When re- 
minded that the horse is a breathng animal, and that some 
provision must be made for letting him have fresh air, they 
display as nmch ignorance as if th ^-y had not learned their 
business. Mr. Lyon's new stables were ventilated from the 
beginning. Each stable contains sixteen horses, and two 
apertures were placed at the highest part of the building. 
They were very well placed, indeed just where ihey should 
be, for carrying off' the heated and foul air. But their size ? 
Each pipe was exactly three inches and a half square ! 
These two holes would hardly ventilate a stage-coach, or an 
omnibus, and yet they were intended for sixteen horses. 
There was no other opening whatever ; the windows would 
not move, and the doors were as closely fitted as they could 
be. 

The architect may be ignorant, but the owner of the horse 
ought to know better. The wealthy and well-inlormed pro- 
prietors of large coaching and posting studs, are sufficiently 
alive to the importance of ventilation. Those by whom it is 
neglected are soon taught, and in a way that is not easily 
forgotten. But there are many who still oppose ventilation ; 
some are indiflj3rent about it, and very few know how it ought 
to be produced. 

Much of the opposition to ventilation has arisen from an 
error, very common among those who recommend it. They 
invariably confound a hot stable with a foul one. The two 
words, hot and foul, are seldom separated. The stable is 
spoken of as if it could not be hot without being foul ; and 
the evils which spring only from foulness are attributed to 
heat. Hence, those who happen to have a stable warm, o' 
it may be hot, and at the same time clean, are very apt .0 
oppose the practice of ventilation. Their horses do as well 
as those in colder stables, and, it may be, they do much bet- 
ter. One will say, I find the practice of airing stables does 
no good ; it is founded upon theory, it won't stand the test 
of experience. My horses look as well again as those of 
my neighbor over the way, and my stable is like an oven 
compared to his. This may be quite true. To look well ^ 
horse must be kept warm ; but to be well, fit to do all thi 
work a horse can be made to do, he must have pure air. We 
are not contending, or we should not be contending, against 
a warm, but against a foul stable. In general, it so happens 
that the air in becoming warm also becomes impure. But 



VENTILATION OF STABLES. 45 

this is not a necessary consequence. Air may be cold and 
at the same time quite unfit lor breathing, or it may be hot 
and yet perfectly free from impurity. There may be stables 
in which the atmosphere is perniciously hot ; but I do not 
think I have ever seen them. I have not been able to trace 
a disease arising from warm or hot stabling. [This is a great 
error, for nothing is more easily susceptible of proof, than that 
horses housed in ver}' warm stables are much more liable to 
take cold when out iu a raw wind or during the winter sea- 
son, than those kept in a lower atmosphere. Dangerous in- 
flammatory complaints are also more likely to follow colds 
take by horses when too warmly stablec' or clothed .] But every 
year affords innumerable examples of what mischief can be 
done by a foul stable. Of course these foul stables are al- 
ways hot ; but, in my belief, it is the impure, not the heated 
air, from which disease arises. Many stables remarkably 
warm are remarkably healthy. It ' is important to make this 
distinction. The horse can be kept warm without being 
poisoned with foul air. And, among stablemen, it is so well 
known that warmth is congenial to the horse, that it improves 
his appearance, and gives him greater vigor, that it is per- 
fectly useless to ofTer any opposition to it. Practice will al- 
ways prevail over theory. We ought not to oppose warmth, 
but the means by which warmth is given. The horse should 
be kept comfortably warm, but he must have pure air. A 
cold stable is not so dangerous as a foul one. 

Then there are many people who are indifferent about ven- 
tilation. They dislike trouble ; they can suffer much, but 
they can do nothing. They will bear all the evils, all the 
loss, and all the vexations of a bad stable, rather than make 
any effort to improve it. If an offer were made to ventilate 
their stables, without cost and without trouble, they would 
permit it to be done. When advised, for the sake of their 
horses, to get the stables properly aired, one will reply, " Ah, 
it is very true what you say, but you may see the thing can 
not be done !" 

Stables are often constructed in such a manner that it is 
very difficult to ventilate them. The process may be both 
troublesome and expensive ; there ought to be some good 
reason for suffering the one and incurring the other. Opposi- 
tion has been excited by magnifying the evils of a close 
stable ; but, divested of all exaggeration, it will be seen that 
they are not insignificant. 



46 STABLE ECONOMY. 

The Object of Ventilation is to procure a constant supply 
of air in sufficient purity to meet the demands of the animal 
economy. Sufficient purity is not perfect purity. Neither 
the horse nor any other animal requires air absolutely pure. 
In towns and in stables there is no such thing ; and that is 
proof strong enough that it is not essential. 

The Composition of Pure Air has been repeatedly ascer- 
tained by chemical research. The atmosphere consists of 
two simple gases. According to Lavoisier, 100 measures of 
pure air contain 73 of nitrogen and 27 of oxygen. [Accord- 
ing to later authorities, within a fraction of 21 of oxygen and 
79 of nitrogen, and about 2-5V0 ^^ carbonic acid.] It has 
been proved that a breathing animal consumes the oxygen, 
and that death ensues when the supply falls below the de- 
mand. When a small animal is enclosed in an air-tight ves- 
sel, it soon dies. The air suffers no apparent diminution in 
bulk, yet it undergoes a change in composition. The oxygen 
is consumed, or a large portion of it is consumed, and its 
place is occupied by another gas, termed carbonic acid, which 
is given out from the lungs. This kind of air is rather 
heavier than that of which the atmosphere is composed. In 
certain situations it mingles with the air in the proportion 
of about 1 to 100. When an animal is completely immersed 
in it, he dies immediately. Some contend that carbonic acid 
is poisonous ; others that it destroys life merely by excluding 
the common air, without v/hich no breathing animal can live. 
The carbonic acid is an evacuation ; it exists in the system, 
but it must not accumulate there. It must be throvvi? out 
almost as rapidly as it is formed. As it is evacuated, it con- 
taminates the external air with which it mingles. Hence, in 
the neighborhood of all animals, the air is more or less im- 
pure. 

The Use of Air, in the animal economy, is to purify the 
blood. This fluid is in a state of constant change. As it 
circulates through the various parts of the body, it performs 
functions innumerable ; these operations change its composi- 
tion, and render it unfit to repeat them unless it be duly 
renovated. In the lungs the air and the blood come in con- 
tact, and both are changed. The air loses a certain portion 
of oxygen and acquires carbon. It becomes of a brightei 
red ; from a dark purple hue it is changed to bright scarlet. 
The process is briefly described by the word purification. 
But it must be remembered that, besides parting with some 
noxious ingredient, the blood is altered in some other way 



VENTILATION OF STABLES 47 

probably by the addition of oxygen, and certainl}r by the 
agency of oxygen. If the air be destitute of this constituent, 
or if it do not contain a certain quantity, the blood can not 
undergo the change by which it maintains life. 

The Composition of Imjmrc Air is not always the same. 
By impurity is here meant any alteration which renders the 
air less fit for breathing. The impurity varies according to 
the quantity, the number, and the kind of foreign matters 
which mingle with the air, and according to the degree in 
which one of its constituents is deficient in quantity. Aii 
may be bad, merely because it is deprived of part of its 
oxygen. It is probable, indeed it is certain, that in particulai 
situations the air does not contain its full proportion of 
oxygen, and that the animals who breathe it do not experi- 
ence any serious inconvenience. Though there is not the 
usual quantity, there is sufficient. When the air contains so 
little oxygen that it can not meet the demand of those animals 
by whom it is breathed, it may very well be called bad. It 
has power to do mischief; the animal suffers, not from the 
presence of a pernicious agent, but from the absence of that 
which enables the blood to pert'brm its functions. The air, 
however, may be rendered actively injurious or poisonous, by 
the addition of foreign ingredients. These are of various 
kinds, many of which can not be discovered by the chymist. 
They are known to exist only from their effects upon the 
health of the living animal. 

The Impure Air of a Close Stable is deficient in oxygen, 
and mingled with carbonic acid, ammoniacal gas, and some 
other matters. The deficiency of oxygen in stables has 
never been proved by actual experiment. But there can be 
no doubt but it occurs wherever the air is confined around a 
breathing animal. Repeated investigations have shown a de- 
ficiency in theatres, hospitals, churches, and other places 
crowded by human beings. A French chymist analyzed the 
air of a large theatre, that of the Tuileries, before and after 
the play. He found it of the usual composition, 100 parts 
containing 27 of oxygen and 73 of nitrogen, before the per- 
formance ; at the conclusion, there were 76^ of nitrogen, 2\ 
of carbonic acid, and only 21 of oxygen. There is every 
reason to believe that the air of a close stable is deficient in 
oxygen to a much greater extent. Stables are often as 
closely packed as a theatre ; the animals are much larger, 
the building much lower, containing less air in proportion to 
the demand closer, and closed for a longer time, than the 



48 STABLE ECONOMY. 

habitations of man, and the deficiency of oxygen must be so 
much, the greater. 

The deterioration of air by consumption of oxygen, and ad- 
dition of carbon, is produced entirely by breathing ; and when 
carried beyond a certain point, debiUty, or disease, or death, 
one or all, must be the result. But the air of a close stable 
is vitiated by other means. There are emanations from the 
surface of the body, from the dung, and from the urine. The 
effluvia, arising from these, mingle with the air, and con- 
taminate it, till it acquires the power of exciting disease 
When the dung and urine are allowed to accumulate day 
after day, till the horse lies upon a bed of rotting litter, the 
air becomes still more seriously tainted. When first entered 
in the morning, the pungent vapors of these close stables are 
almost suffocating. Even after the doors have been open all 
day, there are many corners where the air is always foul. 
The acrid odor which irritates the eyes and nostrils, is chiefly 
or entirely composed of ammonia. It is given out by the 
evacuations, particularly after they have begun to ferment, to 
rot. [The best substance to sweeten and purify the at- 
mosphere in stables, and for fixing the ammonia arising so 
strongly from horse urine in particular, as well as from all 
animal evacuation, is charcoal-dust scattered over the floors, 
among the litter, and on the dung-heap. Plaster of Paris is 
an excellent thing ; also sulphuric acid diluted with about 
fifty per cent, of water, and sprinkled on the litter. All these 
substances add to the value of the manure, more especially 
the charcoal-dust, and it has the further advantage of being 
cheapest, and usually the most easily obtained.] 

The chymist can discover the carbonic acid and the am- 
moniacal vapor which mingle with the air of a close stable. 
By examining the air after a certain manner, he not Only as- 
certains the presence of these gases, but he also measures 
their quantity. It has, however, been supposed that the air 
often contains foreign matters, whose existence can not be 
shown by -any chymical process. There is reason to believe, 
that whenever a large number of animals are crowded to- 
gether, and compelled to breathe and rebreathe the same air 
several times, an aerial poison is generated, having power to 
produce certain diseases. Professor Coleman is of opinion, 
that glanders in the horse, rot in sheep, husk in swine, typhus 
fever, and some other diseases of the human species, are all 
occasionally produced in this way. It is certain that health 
can not be maintained in an atmosphere greatly vitiated ; but 



VENTILATION OF STABLES. 49 

whether the disease arise merely from a deficient supply of 
oxygen, or from some peculiar poison generated during res- 
piration and perspiration, can not be positively known 
Chymists, indeed, deny the existence of this animal poison 
They can not find it ; but it does not, therefore, follow that 
there is none. To their tests iho matter of glanders and 
that of strangles appear to be iX'rCectly similar. That they 
are, not the same, however, is proved by applying them to a 
living being. The air may contain a poison which no test 
merely chymical can detect. 

The Evils of an Impure Atmosphere, vary according to 
several circumstances. The ammoniacal vapor is injurious 
to the eyes, to the nostrils, and the throat. Stables that are 
both close and filthy, are notorious for producing blindness, 
coughs, and inflammation of the nostrils ; these arise from 
acrid vapors alone. They are most common in those dirty 
hovels where the dung and the urine are allowed to accumu- 
late for weeks together. The air of a stable may be con- 
taminated by union with ammoniacal vapor, and yet be 
tolerably pure in other respects. It may never be greatly de- 
ficient in oxygen ; but when the stable is so close that the 
supply of oxygen is deficient, other evils are added to those 
arising from acrid vapors. Disease, in a visible form, may 
not be the immediate result. The horses may perform their 
work and take their food, but they do not look well, and they 
have not the vigor of robust health. Some are lean, hide- 
bound, having a dead dry coat ; some have swelled legs, 
some mange, and some grease. All are spiritless, lazy at 
work, and soon fatigued. They may have the best of food, 
and plenty of it, and their work may not be very laborious ; 
yet they always look as if half-starved, or shamefully over- 
wrought. When the influenza comes among them, it spreads 
fast, and is diflicult to treat. Every now and then one or two 
of the horses becomes glandered and farcied. 

Stables are close in various degrees, and it is only in the 
closest that their worst evils are experienced. But bad air 
is most pernicious when the horses stand long in the stable, 
when the food is bad, and when the work is laborious. 
Hence it is chiefly in the stables occupied by coaching and 
boat-horses, that the effects of a foul atmosphere are most de- 
cisively announced. Other stables, such as those used for 
carriage-horses, hunters, racers, and roadsters, may be equally 
ill-ventilated ; yet the evils are not so visible, nor of the 
3ame kind ; coughs, inflamed lungs a marked liability to in- 

5 



50 STABLE ECONOMY 

fluenza, and general delicacy of constitu ion, are among ti^e 
most serious consequences. But the two cases are different. 
These valuable horses have not so much need for fresh air ; 
they are not required to perform half the work of a stage-coach 
horse ; they are much better attended to, particularly after 
work. The stable is kept cleaner ; the air is not contamina; 
ted by rotting litter, and, in general, the food of these horses 
is of the best quality. Many farm and cart-horse stables are 
destitute of efficient ventilation, but the horses do not suffer 
so much as might be expected. Their slow work does 
not demand a constant supply of the purest air ; and, com- 
pared with the fast-w^orking coach-horse, they are but a very 
short time in the stable. A coach-horse wuo does his work 
in one hour, must suffer more than the other, who is in the 
open air perhaps ten hours out of the twenty-four. 

When a deficient supply of air, hard work, and bad food, 
happen to operate in combination, the ravages of disease are 
dreadful. Glanders and the influenza burst among the horses ; 
and they make brief work of it. For a long time the horses 
may appear to suffer little inconvenience. They may be lean, 
shamefully lean, unfit for full work, and many may become 
unable to continue at any work. Several may have diabetes, 
and many be troubled with bad coughs. But until a sickly 
season prevails, or until some other circumstance occurs to 
render the horses more than usually susceptible of the evils 
arising from the combined influence of bad air, bad food, and 
hard work, there is nothing to excite any alarm. They man- 
age, with some difficulty, to perform their allotted task, though 
they never look as if they were fit for it. At last the influ- 
enza appears, or a horse suddenly displays all the symptoms 
of glanders. One after another is taken ill in rapid succes- 
sion, and death follows death until the stables are half emp- 
tied, or until the entire stud is swept away. The proprietor 
begins to look about him. It is time for him to know that 
God has not given him absolute and unconditional control 
over his fellow-tenants of the earth. Oppression has wide 
dominions, but there are limits which can not be passed. 
Continued suffering terminates in death. 

Under circumstances like these, death reveals the operation 
of a wise and beneficent law. Man, in the pride of his igno- 
rance, may regard the result as a great evil, and to him it truly 
is such ; but a little reflection will show, that it is the un- 
avoidable result of a law designed to prevent evils still great- 
er. Among other provisions intended for the preservaliou 



VENTILATION OF STABLES. 51 

of ev^ery existing species, it has been ordained, that, when 
placed under certain conditions, some shall die that others 
may live. When a class of animals become so excessively 
numerous that something essential to its existence, such as 
air, food, or water, is in danger of being exhausted, a disease 
quickly arises, which carries off a certain number, perhaps a 
majority of the claimants. Those which survive have suf- 
jficient, though it may be a scanty subsistence ; while, had 
all lingered on, all must have perished, and the race would 
be extinguished. In relation, however, to animals which are 
spread over the earth so extensively as the horse, this law 
is probably intended to prevent excessive multiplication, 
rather than to preserve the species, which could hardly be 
all endangered in so many different places at the same time. 
As yet, the existence of such a law has been little observed, 
and numerous examples of its operation can not be cited. 
" On some of the dry and sultry plains of South America," 
says an excellent writer, " the supply of water is often scanty, 
and then a species of madness seizes the horses, and their 
generous and docile qualities are no longer recognised. They 
rush violently into every pond and lake, savagely mangling 
and trampling upon one another, and the carcasses of many 
thousands of them destroyed by their fellows [and by the 
disease ?] have occasionally been seen in and around a con- 
eiderable pool. This is one of the means by which the too 
rapid increase of this quadruped is, by the ordinance of na- 
ture, here prevented."* When a scarcity of food prevails 
among wild animals, it is very likely that some cause arises 
to diminish the demand. Among domestic animals-, frequent 
abortions and barrenness may in many instances be traced to 
the famine of a severe winter. It is difficult to conceive how 
any deficiency of air can occur to the free dwellers of the 
forest and the desert. Yet such an event is possible ; I see 
no absurdity in supposing that animals might congregate in 
such extraordinary multitudes, that the air would be con- 
taminated and become destructive of those by whom it is 
breathed. It is said that horses have been seen in droves of ten 
thousand. Were several of these herds by any chance thrown 
into one, no place could afford sufficient nutriment to maintain 
them ; and it is probable that the air would then receive 
power to destroy a few, lest famine should destroy all. It 
may be true that nothing of this kind has ever been observed 
to take place among any mass of untamed animals. There 
* Mr, Youatt— The Horse. Lib. Use. Kuowledge, p. 8. 



52 STABLE ECONOMY. 

are other agents which vigilantly guard against excessivfl 
multiplication. The contamination of the air may be the last and 
most potent resource. But though rarely, or it may be never, 
occurring in the wilderness, the event is frequent in domesti- 
city. The number of horses confined together even in the 
largest and most crowded stable, bears no proportion to the 
multitudes which compose a wild drove ; yet, considered in 
relation to the small quantity of air by which they are sur- 
rounded, the number is excessive. The difference between 
the number of the horses and the quantity of air, is greater 
than it is ever known to be among wild horses. Hence, 
stabling has introduced a disease that falls very rarely, per- 
haps not at all, upon the untamed portion of the species. I 
allude to glanders. This disease has never been seen among 
wild horses, and it is hardly known where the European mode 
of stabling has not been tried. That it can be produced by 
bad air, or by the want of pure air, is generally admitted. " In 
the expedition to Quiberon, the horses had not been long on 
board the transports when it became necessary to shut down 
the hatchways (we believe for a few hours only) ; the con- 
sequence of this was that some of them were suffocated, and 
all the rest were disembarked either glandered or farcied."* 

[We have no doubt that these horses were diseased when 
shipped, and that the confinement was merely the occasion of 
a quicker development of the disease.] 

IStables are never so perfectly close as to suffocate the 
horses, and they are very rarely so close as to be the sole 
cause of glanders or farcy. When these diseases appear in 
a stable, bad air may possibly be the only cause ; but in general 
the air is assisted by excessive work, or bad food, or by both. 
Setting these destructive diseases out of the question, chronic 
cough, blindness, and common colds, form the principal evils 
of a stable in which the air is mingled with effluvia arising 
from the dung and the urine. And loss of vigor, imperfect 
health, and imperfect strength, are, in ordinary cases, the 
principal consequences of breathing air which is deficient in 
oxygen. Where the air is still more impure, and still more 
deficient, the evils are more numerous, and more serious. 

When a stable is opened in the morning, if the walls or the 
woodwork be moist and perspiring, the stable is too close. 
l( the air irritates the eyes and the nostrils, the stable is dirty 
as well as close. If the air is not comfortably warm, the 
stable is too open. 

* Percivall's Lectures^ vol. iii., p. 405. 



VENTILATION OF STABLES. 63 

Modes of Ventilating Stables. — Many people are perfectly 
aware that their stables ought to be aired ; but they are igno 
rant of the mode in which it should be done. The owner 
or groom is told that the stable is too close ; and he replies, 
"The stable is not so close as you think ; indeed, it is rather 
cold if anything. This window is generally open all day, 
and that hole is never closed. I got it made on purpose to 
air the stable, for it was too hot before." Now, it freqi ently 
happens that the stable is -not too warm, and that the hole and 
the window do keep it cool. But this is not to the purpose. 
These people can not be made to understand the difference 
between warm air and foul air. They are always thinking 
and talking of the temperature, when it is the purity of the 
atmosphere that ought to engage their attention. Ventilation 
may be managed in such a way as to preserve the air in toler- 
able purity, without making it uncomfortably cold. There 
must be apertures for taking away that which has been 
vitiated, and apertures for admitting a fresh supply ; and 
these must be properly placed. Their situation is of some 
consequence, particularly when it is desirable to keep the 
stable warm. In general they are placed too far from the 
roof, too near the ground, perhaps about a foot above the 
horse's head. In this place, they must be so large, in order 
to air the stable, that they must also cool it. 

When the impure air escapes from the horse's lungs, it is 
warmer than the surrounding air, and it is lighter. In con- 
sequence, it rises upward. It ascends to the highest part of 
the building ; if permitted to escape there, it does no harm. 
When there is no aperture so high up, the air remains at the 
roof till it becomes cooler, or cold. When cool as that which 
occupies the lower part of the stable, or when cooler — and it 
soon loses its heat — the air descends, and is rebreathed a 
second, a third, or an indefinite number of times, until it be- 
comes perfectly saturated with impurities, or exhausted of its 
oxygen — at least comparatively exhausted — unable to supply 
the demand. Then a part of the blood must pass through 
the lungs without undergoing the usual change, and the horse 
becomes less vigorous, and consumes more food and more 
water than he would if the air were purer. There may be 
large openings in the stable capable of admitting fresh air, yet 
they are of no use unless there be others for letting out the 
impure air before it cools. 

Apertures for the Escape of the Impure Air, ought to be a 
the highest part of the building, or as near t© it as possible 

5* 



64 STABLE ECONOMY. 

There should be one for each stall, and when the stall is 
empty, the hole may, in winter time, be closed. It should be 
from eight to ten inches square, and placed midway between 
the travises. When the stable is surrounded by other buildings 
in such a manner that the air-holes can not be made in the 
head wall, they should run through the roof. When a loft is 
over the stable, the air may be let out by small chimneys 
running up the walls ; and if these have been neglected in the 
original construction, the air should be conducted through 
ceiling and roof by square wooden tubes, in order that it may 
not mingle with the hay. In this case, instead of an aperture 
to each stall, one, two, or three, of larger size, may be sufficient 
for the whole number, and much less expensive and incon- 
venient than a separate tube to each horse ; whether few or 
many, they should be of sufficient size : taken altogether, the 
whole should affi3rd an opening equal to ten inches square for 
every horse ; and when the stable is low-roofed, this size may 
be too small. When two or three large ventilators are to 
supply the place of many smaller openings, they should be so 
constructed that their size may be regulated according to the 
number of the horses. When the stable is only half filled, 
the ventilators, except in hot weather, need not be more than 
half open. But yet they should never be made to close en- 
tirely, lest an ignorant groom take it into his head to shut 
them all, or a careless fellow to neglect them. In a double- 
headed stable, two or three may be placed on each side, 
directly over the horses' heads ; or they may be directly above 
the gangway : the first plan is the best, but the second is 
the cheapest. In the one case it may require four apertures, 
two on each side with as many wooden tubes to run through 
the loft ; in the other case, only two of double the size may 
be placed in the gangway. Mr. Lyon's stables -are thus ventil- 
ated. 

The same tubes serve for air and for light. Whether large 
or small, the air-holes should be defended on the outside by 
a cap to exclude rain and wind. In some situations an iron- 
grating may be necessary to exclude vermin, thieves, and 
persons maliciously disposed. When this is used, the aper- 
tures must be much larger. 

In addition to the usual ventilating apertures, there ought 
to be one or two others for airing the stables more completely 
upon certain occasions. After washing, fumigating, or other 
purifying processes, or when the horses are all out, or when 
the weather is yery hot, it may be convenient to produce a 



VENTILATION OF STABLES. 
Fig. 7. 



ftA 




current through the stable capable of carrying oif moisture 
and impure or noxious air, more rapidly and more perfectly 
than the ordinary ventilators will allow. When the litter is 
not wholly removed as soon as soiled, these extra apertures 
are particularly necessary during the time the stable is being 
cleaned. The door at the one end, and a window in the 
other, answer the purpose very well ; better than a window 
in the roof, when the air is not heated. In cold weather, a 
large and strong current is not quite harmless when the 
horses are at home, but it may be freely permitted while they 
are out. 

Apertures for the Admission of Pure Air. — Most people do 
not imagine that one set of apertures are required to carry 
away the foul, and another to admit the pure air. Even those 
who know that one set can not answer both purposes in a 
perfect manner, are apt to disregard any provision for admit- 
ting fresh air. They say there is no fear but sufficient will 
find its way in somehow, and the bottom of the door is usu- 
ally pointed to as a very good inlet. It is clear enough that 
while air is going out, some also must be coming in ; and 
that if none go in, little or none can go out. To make an 
outlet without any inlet, betrays ignorance of th« circum- 



56 STABLK ECONOMY 

Stances which produce motion in the air. To leave the inlet 
to chance, is just as much as to say that it is of no conse- 
quence in what direction the fresh air is admitted, or whether 
any be admitted. The outlets may also serve as inlets ; but 
then, they must be much larger than I have mentioned, and 
the stable, without having purer air, must be cool, or ©old. 
When the external atmosphere is colder than that in the stable, 
it enters at the bottom of the door, or it passes through the 
lowest apertures to supply and fill the place of that which is 
escaping from the high apertures. If there be no low open- 
ings the cooler air will enter from above ; it will form a cur- 
rent inward at the sides, while the warmer air forms another 
current, setting outward at the centre of each aperture. But 
when the upper apertures are of small size, this will not take 
place till the air inside becomes very warm or hot. 

The stables at the Veterinary College are all single-headed. 
Each stall has an aperture at top of the head wall for car- 
rying off the foul air, and in the back wall there is another 
of the same size, level with the ground, for admitting pure 
air. These are covered with iron-grating to exclude vermin. 
This, I think, is not the best place to have these inletting 
apertures. In order to reach the nostrils, or head of the 
stall, where the impure air is rising upward, the fresh air 
must pass over the horse's heels while he is standing, and 
over a great part of his body while lying. The same thing 
happens when it passes from the bottom of the door. A cur- 
rent of cold air is established, and constantly flowing from 
the point where it enters, to the point where it escapes, and 
the horse, or some part of him, stands in its path. Possibly 
a current so small and so feeble may do no harm, but possibly 
also it may have something to do in the production of cold 
legs, cracked heels, or an attack of inflammation. If it have 
any effect it can not be of a beneficial tendency, and ought 
therefore to be prevented if it can be prevented. It is easy 
to break the current and difliise the cold air over the stable, 
by placing a board or some other obstacle opposite the inlet- 
ting apertures. It would be better, however, if they could 
be placed nearer the points where the air is wanted. 

In Mr. Lyon's stables (Fig. 7) there are no apertures pur- 
posely contrived for admitting fresh air. The windows serve 
both as outlets and as inlets. They are very large. While 
the warm and impure air is ascending the sides of the tunnel, 
the external air is descending the centre of the same passage, 
and spreading over all the stable. This keeps it cool, coolei 



VENTILATION OF STABLES. 57 

than would be proper where a fine coat is of more impor , ice 
Still, by lowering the windows these stables can be kep. verj* 
comfortable, and without rendering the air unwholesome. 
From the manner in which they are arranged, low apertures 
can not be obtained except to four stalls, without considerable 
expense, and I am not sure that they would be a great im- 
provement though they were introduced. 

Admitting that it is better for the sake of warmth to have 
small outlets with corresponding inlets, than to have large 
outlets and no inlets, I think the inlets ought to be placed 
near the horse's nostrils. To keep him warm, the air which 
surrounds his body should be warm and stagnant, or at least 
as warm and still as ventilation will permit. When the fresh 
air enters at some distance, it must traverse the stable to 
reach the place where it is consumed, and in its passage it 
cools the stable and plays upon some part of the horse. By 
admitting the fresh air at the head wall, below the manger, 
or near the ground, the current would be short ; it would not 
be intercepted by the horse, and it would not cuol the air 
which surrounds his body, and keeps him warm. A stable 
free at both ends, whether single or double, might have a 
wooden tube running below all the mangers, and at each ex- 
tremity open to the external air. As it passed through each 
stall, a number of small perforations, widely spread and suf- 
ficient to admit the air, would be better than a single aperture. 
If the stable were not very long, perhaps it might be suf- 
ficient to have only one end of the tube open ; and whether open 
at one end or at both, the extremity should be turned down- 
ward or defended by a cap, to prevent the wind from blowing 
into it. I do not think that the air would ever enter with 
such force as to cool the horse's head or his legs. But as the 
plan has not been tried, whoever thinks well of it had better 
put it to experiment on a small scale. When the stable abuts 
against other buildings, this is the only mode by which fresh 
air can be brought to the head of the stall, without passing 
over the horse. When the head wall is free, an aperture can 
be made right through it ; but this, though it might be better 
than having it placed opposite the horse's heels, would be 
objectionable. The air might come in too strongly, and blow 
upon the head when the horse is lying. The small sieve- 
like perforations spread over a considerable surface, the 
whole forming a space equal to about six inches square^ 
would render a current upon the head almost impossible. 
The only use of low apertures is to admit fresh air. In 



58 STABLE ECONOMY 

former times, it was supposed that they were necessary for 
taking out the carbonic acid gas formed during respiration. It 
was found that this gas is much heavier than common air, and 
it was imagined that it fell to the ground, like water when 
dropped among oil. But it is now known that, though heav- 
ier, the gas unites with the atmosphere, or gravitates in very 
small quantities, and only till the air can absorb it. 

When the floor of the stable is bad, retaining the urine and 
then rejecting it by evaporation, the inlets and the outlets re- 
quire to be much larger than I have mentioned. A low roof 
also renders large apertures very necessary. 

Objections urged against Ventilation. — These, as I have 
already hinted, often have their origin in ignorance, which 
attempts ventilation without knowing its intention or the mode 
of producing it; and in indifference, which thinks it does 
well while it follows as others have led. The cost of ven- 
tilating a stable is very trifling, yet some are so awkwardly 
arranged that the process may demand more than the owner 
is willing to give. It is the most foolish of all objections ; 
the evils produced by bad air may be attended with more loss 
in six months than would pay the cost of ventilating the 
stables six times. Even where there is no actual disease, the 
horses, if doing work, require more corn to maintain their 
condition than those who have more air. 

The cold currents of a ventilated stable, to which people 
so often object, are injurious only when the apertures are too 
large or improperly placed. If there be a large aperture be- 
hind the horse's heels, and another above his head, the cold 
air must pass over him, and in force proportioned to its vol- 
ume. But this is easily avoided, either by having a number 
of very small apertures, or by placing the outlets and the in- 
lets in such relation to each other, that the horse can not 
stand in the way of the current. The cold air is always 
flowing by the nearest road from the point at which it enters 
to the point at which it is consumed, that is, at the horse's 
nostrils. With a knowledge of this simple fact, to which I 
have already alluded more fully, ventilation may be so regu- 
lated that the current need not traverse much of the stable, to 
cool the air, nor to fall on any particular part of the horse. 
When the fresh air must pass over the horse, before it can 
reach his nostrils, its force can be broken by admitting it 
through numerous and wide-spread perforations, each perhaps 
not exceeding half an inch in diameter, but taken altogether, 
nearly equal in size to the aperture by which the foul air 
escapes. 



STABLE APPENDAGES. 69 



stable; appendages. 



These consist of loose boxes ; of apartments for provender 
and litter ; of a sleeping chamber for the stable-man ; a har- 
ness-room ; a yard, or shed, for grooming and exercise ; and 
a water-pond. Of the construction, size, situation, and ar- 
rangement of these, I have little to say. My principal object 
is to consider them in relation to the health, vigor, safety, and 
convenience of the horse. 

Loose Boxes are merely large stalls, or apartments for 
one horse, in which he is shut up wdthout being confined by 
the head. The horse is loose, and hence the name given to 
these places. They form a very necessary appendage to all 
stables whether large or small, yet they are too often forgot- 
ten m the construction of these buildings. Their utility is 
unquestionable. In the sickness of inflamed lungs, the mad- 
ness of brain-fever, and the agony of colic, they confer qui- 
etness, repose, and safety. They permit the lame horse to 
lie down, and to rise easily and often, without the risk of in- 
flicting further injury. For a fatigued horse, there is no 
place like a loose box. There he can stretch his wearied 
limbs in ease and quietness. An overtasked hunter will re- 
cover his vigor and activity a full day sooner in a loose box 
than in a stall. Some horses will not lie down when tied by 
the head, and they soon injure their legs and become unfit for 
full work. A loose box is the proper place for such a horse. 
Then a loose box, when properly contrived, separated from 
the stable, is a convenient place for a horse having an infec- 
tious disease ; and it is the safest place for those that ob- 
stinately persist in breaking loose. 

Loose boxes vary in size from ten to sixteen feet square. 
They are too small cit ten feet, and rather cold at sixteen. It 
is a very convenient loose box at fourteen feet square. It is 
better larger than smaller. It should be well paved, the floor 
inclining a little from all sides toward a grating in the centre. 
[It is better to have the floor slightly inclining to the back of 
the stable, and a gutter running its whole length two inches 
deep and six inches wide, to carry oflf the urine to a cess- 
pool under cover outside. All the eflluvia may be retained in 
this by throwing charcoal or peat earth into the cess-pool, to 
the depth of two feet or so, and removing it with the urine 
when wanted for manure.] The walls should be boarded ; 
the roof should be eight feet from the ground, neither more 



60 STABLE ECONOMY. 

nor less. There should be a manger for gram or mash, and 
another for water ; and a hay-rack. All these may be rather 
smaller than those in the stable. They have been objected 
to in a loose box, as likely to injure the horse. Except when 
mad with pain or brain-fever, he will take care of himself. 
The mangers, however, may be made to remove when they 
are likely to be in the horse's way. There should be abun- 
dance of air and light, admitted by windows and apertures 
which can be closed, or their size regulated according to cir- 
cumstances. The windows may have shutters, for light is 
sometimes objectionable. They may be placed in the roof, 
or high in the wall, out of the horse's reach. There should 
also be a small shelf, near the roof, for holding a light, a 
brush, bandages, or any other little article. A cupboard for 
clothes, food, medicines, or articles belonging to the sick 
horse, is convenient, and may help to keep disease from the 
other horses. The door should be in two pieces, cut across, 
the largest half at bottom ; it should open inward, and be 
secured by bolts. The entrance may be five feet wide ; it 
need not be wider, and it should not be narrower. 

The number of loose boxes required in a large stud, varies 
greatly according to the kind of work and the kind of man- 
agement. In well-ordered coaching studs, one to every thir- 
tieth horse is sufficient. In some, double or treble this num- 
ber could be in constant use ; but on such establishments 
there are seldom more than two for a hundred stalls, and very 
often not one. In hunting and in racing stables, one foi 
every third or fourth horse is almost indispensable. They 
are employed for wintering the racer and summering the 
hunter. 

Their situation in relation to the stables is a matter of some 
consequence, particularly in large studs. When ranged in a 
row, one side should abut against the stable or some other 
building. The boxes are very cold when exposed all round. 
But they ought, at least some of them ought, to be perfectly 
separate from the stables, having no communication by which 
the air may pass from the sick to the sound. The influenza 
appears almost every year at certain seasons ; and there is 
good reason for believing that, in some of its forms, or in 
some seasons, it is infectious. The owner of a large stud 
ought to be prepared for it. If he had a number of loose 
boxes, or a number of small stables for two horses, he might 
avert much loss and inconvenience. These small stables oi 
loose boxes need not be unoccupied at any time ; and when 



STABLE APPENDAGES. 61 

disease does come, they would afford a quiet place for the 
sick, where they could not infect the sound. In some sta- 
bles the loose boxes and the stalls are all under one roof. 
The loose box may be at one end of the stable. When there 
are four stalls, one of the travises may be made to remove, 
so that two of the stalls can be thrown into one. This plan 
answers very well, and it is almost the only plan by which a 
loose box can be obtained where ground is valuable. It does 
well enough for a lame or tired horse, or for one whose work 
in summer or in winter, demands a month or more of repose. 
It is also a very good loose box for a sick horse whose sick- 
ness has no tendency to spread. But besides this, there 
ought to be another, quite unconnected with the stable. To 
that, glanders or influenza may be confined ; and having an 
entrance of its own, it serves for dressing a horse that comes 
in after stable hours, without disturbing the others. 

Some horses are fond of company. They are restless, 
and do not thrive in solitude. The isolated loose box is not 
for them, unless the safety of others demand absolute separa- 
tion. When lame, fatigued, or laid up for rest, their box may 
be in the stable. 

The Hay-Chamber, in towns, and indeed in most parts of 
the country, is placed above the stable. All the authors who 
have written on these matters, think that the hay should be 
kept somewhere else. They say that the horse's breath 
mingles with the hay and spoils it ; that dust and seeds fall 
through the chinks and openings, and soil the horse or in- 
jure his eyes. This is quite true. But it is possible, and 
very easy to have the hay-loft over the stable, without any 
danger to the hay or annoyance to the horse. It is only 
necessary to make the roof of the stable air-tight. It may be 
lathed and plastered ; but it harbors vermin, and that is a 
strong objection to ceiling. The boards, however, forming 
the floor of the loft, may be so closely jointed as to be im- 
pervious, and a coat of paint or pitch will prevent the moist 
air from acting on the wood. The openings for putting down 
hay, and the trap-door for entering the loft, may be abolished, 
or furnished with close-fitting covers. Upon these conditions 
the loft may remain where it usually is. In large towns, 
ground is so valuable that it is hardly possible to have the 
hay-chamber in any other place, and indeed no better place 
is required. The hay can-be kept dry and clean. The stable 
eflfiuvia can not reach it, if there be no communication : when 
the loft can be entered from the outside, there is no need 

6 



02 STABLE ECONOMY 

either for rack-holes or a trap-door. A hay-crib, if the stable 
afford room for it, may be placed in one corner, and the daily 
allowance of hay can be put into it every morning. In the 
country a hay-loft is of little use when the hay can be cut 
from the stack every day in such quantines as to serve for 
twenty-four hours. In this way it is always cleaner and 
fresher than when kept in a loft. 

In towns, the only fault I can find with hay-lofts, besides 
their communication with the stable, is their size. They are 
always too small. The length and breadth are limited, but 
the height seldom is. There should always be some spare 
room for shaking the dust out of the hay, for taking in an 
extra supply, for turning it over when in danger of heating, 
or for storing straw or grain. However roomy, the hay-loft 
is to contain nothing but food and litter, and not litter unless 
it be sound and dry. A corner may be boarded up to pre- 
serve the hay-seed for use or for sale. The practice of cut- 
ting the hay is becoming pretty common, and it would be 
more so if people had room. The hay-loft should afford 
space for the machine and the process. But in large estab- 
lishments, an apartment adjoining the hay-loft is required. 
In that the hay is cut, the grain bruised, mixed, weighed, and 
measured. The loft has little need for windows, but it should 
have a ventilator, and the door may be so placed as to give all 
the light required. The cutting or bruising apartment requires 
both light and air. 

The Straw is sometimes kept in the hay-loft, sometimes 
in a spare stall. It should not be open to dogs, swine, 
or poultry ; these animals often leave vermin among it, which 
find their way to the horses. 

The Granary is merely a cool and well-aired apartment. 
And if placed over a stable, the floor should be perfectly 
close, that the moist air may not pass through. But it is 
better to have it over a shed or coach-house. Vermin should 
be carefully excluded. 

The Grain-Chest supplies the place of a granary, where 
only two or three horses are kept. No more grain is pur- 
chased at one time than will be consumed in a few weeks, 
and that is placed in a box, which usually stands in a corner 
or recess in the stable. In a small stable the grain- chest 
takes up too much room. It is constantly in the way ; and 
in all stables it is occasionally left open or insecurely closed. 
A horse breaks loose and gorges himself till he is foundered 
or colicked. It ought to be out of the stable altogether. If 



STABLE APPENDAGES 63 

placed in the loft, a wooden tube can bring the grain to the 
stable. The chest may be fixed, and have its bottom sloping 
like a hopper to the tube by which tbe grain runs down to the 
stable. The lower extremity of the pipe may be enclosed in 
a cupboard, or it may lie against the wall. The grain is ob» 
tained by drawing out an iron slide 

The chest may be divided into four compartments ; one 
for oats, one for [shorts or bran, one for Indian corn, one for 
barley, and one for meal of different kinds.] 

BoiLER-HousE. — A copper for heating water or cooking 
food, is a very necessary appendage to all stables. Hot 
water is frequently required for numerous operations, which 
are not performed if the water can not be easily procured. 
But this is not the principal use of a boiler. It is wanted so 
often for cooking food, that in town as well as country it ought 
to form a permanent appendage. [When hay and grain are 
cheap, it is no object to cut the one or cook the other.] The 
boiler is usually made of cast-iron, and placed in some corner 
of the yard. On large establishments it would be an advan- 
tage, a saving, to have the boiler of malleable iron. It is in 
almost constant use, and intrusted to so many different per- 
sons, most of them sufficiently careless, that it is generally 
broken once or twice a year. Mr. Mein has one of plate-iron, 
oval in form ; and it is not injured by the worst of usage. 

The boiler should be placed in a house which will afford 
convenience for keeping all the cooking implements, coals, 
coolers, and pails. There should be an iron ladle for mixing 
or measuring the food ; a water-pipe, with the stopcock run- 
ning into the boiler. The door should have a good lock upon 
it. The entrance should be wide enough to admit a wheel- 
barrow, or the cooler, which is just a long wooden trough, 
sometimes placed upon wheels. A part of the boiler-house 
may be allotted to roots intended for cooking. 

When the food is steamed, there is still more need for 
shelter from the weather, convenience for carrying on the 
processes, and security from the intrusion of thievery and 
mischief. 

Water-Pond. — At the seats of country gentlemen, this is 
rather a common appendage to the stables. It is employed 
for washing, and for watering the horses. They, and some- 
times the carriage, are dragged through it twice or thrice to 
remove the road-mud. The borses are allowed to drink from 
it, the ducks and geese to swim in it, and the place appears 
to be useful for drowning super mmerary pups and kittens. 



64 STABLE ECONOMY 

As a bath for water-fowl the pond has its use ; but as a place 
for watering and washing the horses, it is useless and per- 
nicious. The groom or the coachman, if lazy, may consider 
it a great convenience. He does not know, or he is not very 
willing to know, that it is not proper to drive the horses through 
this cold water ; that it makes them subject to swelled legs, 
to grease, to colic, and to cold ; and perhaps he never con- 
siders that this dirty stagnant water is not very pleasant or 
wholesome to drink. It is not the place nor the way 'n 
which horses should be either watered or washed. If there 
be no other reservoir for the stables, the water should be 
taken to the horse, not the horse to the water. To take him 
there for washing his legs, is a true sloven's expedient 
Water for drinking should be as near to the stable as pos 
sible ; when it has to be carried any distance, the horse is 
often neglected. 

Stable-Yard or Shed. — Few, besides the large proprie 
tor and the country gentleman, can have a stable-yard for his 
own use. In towns, the only place in the shape of a yard 
is the lane. In this the horses must be groomed and the 
carriage washed. When the stables are ranged in a square 
or circle, the coaches ought to be washed near the centre, or 
at some distance from the stables. The practice of doing all 
the wet work close to the stable-door, keeps the air always 
cold and damp, and the entrance dirty. In some large es- 
tablishments there is a covered shed, in front of, or around 
the stables, or at one side of the yard. There the horses are 
groomed, and exercised in dirty weather, or walked till cool, 
dry, and ready for grooming. For this latter purpose it is of 
great importance. Every coachmaster knows how necessary 
it is to keep the horses moving until they be nearly dry and 
cool. Without a covered shed this can not be managed in 
bad weather. Such a place answers many purposes. It 
allows all the horses to be groomed out of the stable, thus 
saving litter, and avoiding annoyance to the other horses. 
The groom, too, can see better what he is about, and can 
handle the horse better here than in the stable. When litter 
is dear, that which has merely been wet with urine can be 
dried, and made as good as ever, under the shed ; and at 
night, when not otherwise wanted, it can be converted into a 
coach-house. 

Such a shed need not be costly. In fact it is nothing but 
a roof supported on one side by a few pillars, and projecting 
from a dead wall, or the front of the stables. The width and 



STABLE APPENDAGES 65 

length must vary. Fourteen feet will make it sufficiently 
wide, and in length it may be forty or sixty, or as long as 
possible. The roef may be of unplastered tile. The floor 
may be causewayed or pitched with pebbles. At one end, 
about twelve feet may have a soft bottom for those horses 
ihat beat the ground very much when under the groom's 
operations. The soft floor saves the feet, prevents the horse 
from striking ofl" his shoes. It may be all alike, but if wet 
be admitted such a floor is never in order. 

Harness-Room. — In some large stables, where a saddler 
is kept, his workshop forms the harness-room. In others 
there is an apartment for the spare and old harness. In 
posting establishments there is usually a dry room, with a 
fireplace in it. Each set of harness is numbered, or named, 
according to the horses it belongs to, and hung always in the 
same place. In stage-coach stables and others of a similar 
kind, the harness in use is commonly hung in the stable, each 
horse's being placed on his stall-post. This encumbers the 
stable very much ; but it appears to be the most convenient 
way of disposing of the harness. In gentlemen's stables, the 
saddles and harness are generally placed in the groom's sleep- 
ing-room, or in the coach-house. The stable is a bad place to 
keep them in. They get damp, soiled, and knocked about a 
good deal. In coaching stables, the harness is not so easily 
injured, and it is in constant use. Besides being dry and well 
aired, the room should have plenty of light; there should be 
racks for the harness, whips, and boots ; stools or brackets 
for the saddles ; pegs for the bridles ; a shelf for miscella- 
neous articles ; and a cupboard for brushes, sponges, ban- 
dages, bits, clothes, and other things of this kind, not in con- 
stant use. 

Stable Cupboard. — In those stables where the men are 
often changed, or where several are working together, each 
should have a small cupboard furnished with a good lock. 
In this the man may deposite his working implements, such as 
combs, scissors, sponge, brushes, or whatever he receives 
from the master. They are safe from thieves, and he can 
have no excuse for losing them. In some cart-stables the 
driver receives his horse's daily allowance of grain every 
morning ; but unless each can keep his own, one will steal 
from another. This cupboard should have a box for holding 
the grain too. 

Groom's Bedroom. — Wherever a number of horses are 
kept together in stables, accidents will frequently happen 
6* 



66 STABLE ECONOMY. 

through the night. One will break loose, one will cast him- 
self over the travis, one will get halter-cast, some fall to 
kicking, and some are taken ill. In any of these cases much 
mischief may bt, done before the groom appears in the morn- 
ing. Among draught horses, it is not uncommon to find one 
dead that was in perfect health, and ate his supper the night 
before. He dies from a disease that, at the beginning, can 
be cured with infallible certainty ; and he is in such torture 
that he struggles, and makes noise enough to waken any one 
sleeping in the stable. But nobody is there, and the poor 
horse dies for want of help. 

In large studs, a man is usually appointed to watch the 
stables all night, and to give the alarm should fire break out, 
or should he hear any unusual stir in the stables. In some 
cases he has instructions to enter the stables occasionally, 
and see that all be right. This, of course, must be done 
without disturbing the horses. This man often requires 
watching himself : he may slumber at his post, or he may 
desert it. The owner, or some other for him, should pay 
him a secret visit now and then. The first breach of duty 
should be his last. An excuse is never wanting, but it is 
folly to admit any. 

In smaller studs, a sleeping-room for one or two of the 
grooms is usually regarded as sufficient security against noc- 
turnal danger. The place should be comfortable, that there 
may be the less inducement to leave it. In coaching-stables 
there is sometimes a dwelling-house for the head ostler and 
his family. It should be in a central situation, witnm hear- 
ing of all the stables ; and when that can not be managed, a 
bed may be placed in the most remote for an additional man. 
In racing establishments there is a settle-bed in each stable 
for two Df the boys ; and the groom's house is close ad- 
joining. 

[Stables of Mr. Gibbons. — The most complete stables 
which we have seen in the United States, or indeed any- 
where else, when we take into consideration their cost, com- 
fort, and convenience, are in Madison, New Jersey, at the 
Forest — the beautiful estate of William Gibbons, Esq. ; plans 
of which he has kindly permitted us to take, to embellish the 
American edition of the Stable Economy. 

The building comprising the stables stands upon the edge 
of a piece of broad table-land, gently declining to the south. 
The foundation, and Walls of the lower story, are of stone ; th*^ 
walls of the upper stores are of brick. The whole building 



STABLES OF MR. GIBBONS. 



67 



is strong and massive, and finislied in the most thorough and 
complete manner. 



Fio. 8. 




^■^.-r^' 



11 



il:n;ini]jii!iin:iinirt^^^^ 



D, Fig. 8, Perspective View of the elevation of the stables 
on the north or upper side. They are two stories high on 
the front, D, and three stories on the lower or south side, op- 
posite D. The building is 90 feet long, 50 wide, and 24 
high on this front. The architecture is neat and appropriate. 
There is a good Macadam carriage-way in front of the side 
D ; a and b are large windows, alongside of which the hay- 
carts drive to unload. 
Fig. 9. 



E 



T~'T"~i— --"r~~i — I — rtfr'T" 



I M I I M I I I 



■J i— i--i-i— 1— i-f^ ariTiL- 



a 




CS 



A, Fig. 9, Basement Story, laid up of thick stone walls. 
o, Solid earth. — b, h, Cisterns 12 feet square, and 7 feet deep, 
c, g, Passage-ways from which the cattle are fed under the 
water-troughs, e, e, 

<?, c?, Racks for receiving hay from above. 



68 



STABLE ECONOMY. 




.J L 1 J Jl 1 L. 



•r^-i -T r-." — r i r r r* 



s 



fcot^J 



Q 



e, e, Water-troughs running along the whole front of the 
cattle-stalls. 

f. Passage-way for the cattle, with rows of open stalls on 
each side, 4 feet 3 inches wide. 

I, Solid earth. — j, Cellar for roots, 16 feet square. 
k, Pump which draws water from the cistern, and delivers 
it into the troughs, e, e. 



STALLS OF IVIR. PELL. 69 

C, Fig. 10, Third Story or Loft. 

a, a, Openings in the floor to put down hay for the stock. 

h. Stairway. — c, Hay-loft. 

d, Granary, partitioned into separate divisions as designa- 
ted by the lines, for diflferent kinds of grain. 

B, Fig. 11, Second Story, on a level with the broad table- 
land on the front of T),Jig. 8, north side. 

a, m, Sheds 50 feelf long and 13 feet wide. The loft or 
third story, C,fig. 10, forms their ceiling or roof, by projecting 
over them at each end. The open spaces along the outside 
lines are arches ; the black spots are brick walls to support 
the ends of the upper story. These sheds are very convenient 
for taking out the horses to dress, and for other purposes 

b, n, Pumps. 

c, d, (?,/, Box-stalls for horses, 14 feet, 6 inches deep, by 9 
feet 8 inches, 9 feet 7 inches, 9 feet 6 inches, and 19 feet wide. 

g, g, Rows of feed-boxes for the horses. 
h, h, Rows of openings through which to put down hay into 
the racks for the cattle in the basement story (see d, d, in A, 

fig- 9)- 

/, Farmer's room for utensils, 11 by 7 feet 6 inches. 

j, Harness-room, 11 by 12 feet 6 inches, k, Coach-room. 

/, Horse-stalls 4 feet 9 inches, by 14 feet 6 inches. 

o, 0, Water-troughs. 

Mr. Gibbons has a very fine stud of thorough-bred horses, 
among which are the famous Bonnets-of-Blue, Fashion, and 
Mariner. His Durham cattle are superb, and all his farm 
arrangements and farm buildings are in excellent style. 

Stalls of Mr. Pell. — Fig. 12 is a perspective view of 
two stalls in the stables of R. L. Pell, Esq., of Pelham, N. Y. 

a, Hay-loft. Behind the hoppers b, b, are holes in the floor 
through which the hay is put down into the racks e, e, e. 

b, b, Hoppers. — c, Floor-beam. 

d, d, Conductors which lead from the hoppers to the man- 
ger. Close behind b, b, are the grain-bins, so that in feeding 
the horses, it is only necessary to take the requisite quantity 
of oats from them, and pour into the hoppers. The groom 
will thus feed a large number of horses in a short time with- 
out the necessity of leaving the hay-loft. 

e, e, e, Hay-racks, with oak rollers 4 feet long and 2 inches 
in diameter, standing perpendicularly 3 feet from the wall. 
They have round gudgeons at each end fitted into round holes 
in the bottom and top pieces of the rack. As the horse pulls 
on the hay to eat it these rollers revolve easily, and he thus 
gets just what he wants. The bottom of the racks are lat- 



70 




ticed, so that the hay-seeds can fall below into the seed- 
box f.—f, Seed-box. 

g, Door of seed-box to empty it of the hay-seed. 

A, A, Trough running the whole length of the stalls. 

1,1, Oak rollers over the edges of the troughs, 3 inches in 
diameter. The horse will not gnaw this ; for the moment he 
attempts to take hold of it with his teeth, it revolves, and he 
can not hold it. 

>,>, Stall divisions 5 feet wide. The posts at the end of 
these are of turned oak.] 



STABLE OPERATIONS. 71 



SECOND CHAPTER. 

STABLE OPERATIONS. 

I. STABLEMEN. II. GROOMING. III. OPERATIONS OF DECORA- 
TION. IV. MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET. V. OPERATIONS 

ON THE STABLE. 

To many people the stable operations may appear to be 
few and simple, requiring little dexterity and almost no ex- 
perience. A great many horses do not demand much care ; 
their work is easy, and their personal appearance is not a 
matter of much consequence. They are horses of small price, 
and they are attended by men whose services would not be 
accepted where the value, and work, and appearance of the 
horse, demand more skilful management. In hunting and in 
racing studs, the stable operations are more numerous, and 
performed in a different manner. There, nobody can groom 
a horse but a groom ; one who has learned his business as a 
man learns a trade. 

It is impossible to have the stable operations performed 
well, nor even decently, without good tools, and good hands 
to use them. There should be no want of the necessary im- 
plements. A bad groom may do without many of them, be- 
cause he does not know their use ; but a good groom requires 
brushes, combs, sponges, towels, skins, rubbers, scissors, 
bandages, cloths, pails, forks, brooms, and some other little 
articles, all which he should have, if the horse is to receive 
all the care and decoration a groom can bestow. 

The stable operations are learned by imitation and by prac- 
tice. But there is no one to teach, and no one desirous of 
learning them in a systematic manner. A boy, intending to be- 
come a groom, goes into the stable of a person not very par- 
ticular about his horses, or he goes sometimes under a senior. 
At first the boy can do almost nothing. After a while he is 
able to do some things, perhaps, tolerably well. He can go 



72 STABLE ECONOSir. 

about the horse, and manage some of the stable operations 
better than he could at the beginning. In a few years he may 
be an excellent groom. But, is it not singular ? he has never 
in all that time made any effort to learn his business. He has 
had work to do, and it was done, not because he desired to 
learn how to do it, but because it could not be left undone. 
The horse was to clean, and when cleaned, the boy was 
thankful that his task was finished, and he never did it when 
he could avoid it. If he had been anxious to learn his busi- 
ness quickly and well, he ought to have done a great deal 
more. Instead of contriving expedients to escape work, he 
ought to have done the work ten times for once. He never 
brushed a horse when he did not need brushing, nor made a 
bed twice when once would serve. 

If the boy has any desire to learn, or if any desire can be 
excited, let him see the stable and the stable-work of a good 
groom. Show him the horse's skin, how beautiful and pure 
it is ; the stable, how clean and orderly ; and the bed, how 
neatly and comfortably it is made. Let him see the man at 
work, and make him understand that his dexterity was acquir- 
ed by practice. For the operations, after seeing them once 
or twice performed, practice is everything. Two dressings 
every day may be all the horse requires, but four will do him 
no harm. The bed may be made twenty times a-day ; and 
everything which practice teaches should be done often, if it 
is ever to be done well. In the ordinary course of things the 
boy may become an expert groom in four or five years. By 
systematic and persevering efforts, he may be as expert in six 
or eight months. There are many businesses, and a groom's 
is one of them, in which it is difficult to get skilful workmen. 
There are loiterers of all kinds in the world ; and every large 
town furnishes thousands of men who have arrived at old age 
in the pursuit or practice of a business which they never made 
a serious effort to learn. There are few who have studied to 
learn or to improve. Everything is left to chance ; and if 
much were not acquired by chance, a good workman, among 
working men, would be a wonder. Even among professional 
men, there is more anxiety to appear skilful than diligence to 
be so. 

STABLEMEN. 

There are several kinds of stable servants. There are 
coachmen, grooms, hunting-grooms, training-grooms, head- 



STABLE OPERATIONS. 73 

grooms, head-lads, boys, strappers, ostlers, carters, and many 
more of smaller note. Taken altogether, they form a clas;* 
which can not be easily described. Some of them are very 
decent men, filling their station with respectability ; and often 
at the close of a long and useful servitude, receiving the appro- 
bation and reward which their conduct deserves. Some are 
humane to their horses, dutiful, careful, and vigilant ; many 
know their business well, and are able to teach it so admira- 
bly, that I have often thou^t it a pity there should be no 
school where these men might practically instruct others. 

In our books it has been too long and too much the custom 
to speak of stablemen as if they were all alike ; as if they 
were all ignorant, and something worse than ignorant. Their 
very employment has been treated with contempt by men from 
whom something better might be expected. There is surely 
nothing degrading in tending the horse whether well or sick. 
To throw odium on the employment, is to deprive the horse 
of many men whose services might make his life more tol- 
erable ; and to degrade all, because a few deserve degrada- 
tion, is work fit only for a fool. Society, composed as it is 
of so much pride, and folly, and ignorance, will continue to 
do this, and to associate the duty with the men who perform 
it. But in the solitude of his study a writer ought to be more 
precise. His wisdom is not of much worth if he mingle it 
with the dogmas of those to whom the distinctions of pride 
and pomp are more than the distinctions of truth. 

It depends upon the man himself. There is no reason why 
he should not be respectable and respected. He fills a useful 
place in society. There are many in it shrewd and intelligent 
above their station. 

But then there is much to be said on the other side. The 
great fault of stablemen in general is want of skill. Only a 
few have all the qualifications their work demands. Some are 
inexperienced, perfectly unacquainted with their duties ; some 
are stupid, awkward, inexpert, incapable of learning anything ; 
some are lazy, dirty, shuffling ragamuffins, useless as weeds, 
and more pernicious ; some are abominably ill-tempered, 
cniel, and even ferocious, frequently laming the horses, over- 
driving, or abusing them in a variety of ways ; some are dis- 
honest, pilfering and selling the provender ; some are tipplers ; 
a great many are altogether given over to drunkenness ; some 
are so mightily puffed up with a notion of their own wisdom 
and abilities, that there is no bearing with them. These are 
always intractable. Directions are of no use to them. They 

7 



74 STABLE ECONOMY. 

will do things their own way, without even attempting any 
other. They know everything, and everybody's business 
but their own. Others are so desperately vain of their svvee 
persons, that for one hour they spend upon the horses, they 
spend two in letting people see themselves, or in preparhig to 
be seen. Some are careless, wasteful, indifferent to their 
master's interests. Others are insinuating hypocrites, mere 
eye-servants ; never doing their duty, yet always busy ; never 
grumbling, but often ostentatiously exhibiting some trait of 
superfluous obedience, deference, or care. Some are slovenly, 
always in disorder. Many are indifferent to the welfare and 
comfort of the horses. They may not be ill-tempered nor 
violent ; but they are negligent, and that often amounts to 
cruelty. They never sympathize with the suflering. They 
will stand round a horse in the pangs of death, and, if moved 
at all, it is to utter some foul jest, or to bestow a curse or a 
kick. These fellows are rarely to be trusted as stablemen, 
and never as drivers. Indeed, they are unworthy of all trust. 
They are always heartless, selfish vagabonds, indiflerent to 
everything but their own animal wants, and never doing any 
good but what the law compels. A good stableman should 
love horses ; while they are ill he should not be quite at 
ease. 

Some stablemen have the speaking-evil. They are never 
right but when they are talking with somebody. While they 
are gossipping the work is standing. In general these are 
sad boasters and tale-bearers. They must have something to 
prate about, and if there is nothing to be said about the master 
or his lady, nor any secret to be carried from the stables or the 
house, new stories must be laid upon the old foundation, and 
with fiction, and truth, and says-he and says-I, some sort of a 
story is trumped up to afford the talking gentleman a little 
merriment or consolation. In most stables this vice is of no 
consequence ; but such a man is not to be triisted in a racing 
stud. These great talkers are mostly always great liars. 

The Gentleman's Coachman is not the same being in the 
city that he appears in the country. In the crowded streets 
of large towns he should have nothing to learn. Skill in 
driving is his most essential qualification. Sobriety stands 
next, and after that, experience in the stable management of 
his horses. He should be careful at all times ; cool when 
accidents happen ; kind to his horses ; active, robust, good- 
looking ; of a mature age ; not disposed to sleep on the box, 
nor too fond of company. He should be punctual to a 



STABLE OPERATIONS. 75 

moment ; always ready, indeed, an hour before he is wanted . 
He should have a religious regard to cleanliness. It should 
be his pride to excel others, and to have everything in the 
most exact order. Nothing looks worse than a slovenly, ill- 
appointed coachman. He should have none of the indecent 
slang so common among worthless stablemen. 

It is not easy to procure men with all these qualifications ; 
and it very often happens that a man who has most of them, 
or possibly the whole of them, and some others to boot, has 
some fault which greatly counterbalances, or neutralizes his 
good properties. A sood servant is very apt to take it into his 
head that there is nobody like him. He begins to give him- 
self airs, as if he were an indispensable personage, whose 
loss could not be supplied. He will sometimes forget him- 
self so far as to do things which he knows would procure the 
discharge of any other servant. The longer a man of this 
kind is suffered, the worse he grows. He encroaches here 
and there, till he has privileges sufficient to excite rebellion 
in all the rest of the household. At last he becomes quite a 
fool, and there is no longer any managing of him, and he ha? 
to be sent about his business. A man who ventures to do 
wrong, or to forget his duty, merely because he knows that 
he is highly esteemed, must have little foresight. It is the 
very way to forfeit all he has gained, and estimation of this 
kind once lost, is always lost. It is a greater evil to lose a 
good name, than never to obtain it. 

In the country coachman skilful driving is not of the first 
importance. He need not^like his brother of the town, serve 
an apprenticeship for it. He may go from the stable or the 
plough, and a few lessons on a quiet road, with a pair of 
steady horses, will soon give him all the proficiency he re- ^ 
quires. The more of the other qualities he possesses, the 
better. The principal fault of a country coachman is sloven- 
liness. He sits on the box as if he were driving a cart, his 
hands resting on his knees, elbows projecting like the paddles 
of a steamboat, his body bent nearly double, his head hang- 
ing low, or his eyes following everything but the horses ; the 
reins slack, whip pointing to the ground, its handle spliced, 
and thong curtailed. Then the horses are something like the 
man ; their coats are long, rough, dim, and their actions sluggish. 
The harness and the carriage are not much better, looking rusty, 
tarnished, sun-burned. The stable is always in disorder, 
presenting an assemblage of things usele-ss and useful, frag- 
ments of this and of that, nothing where it should be, and 



76 STABLE ECONOMY. 

notliiiig complete ; the whole very much resembling that com 
pilatioa entitled " The Field-Book." 

Slovenly servants always have very particular masters. 
There i^ almost no curing of them. Habits of order and 
despatch must commence in boyhood, or not at all. 

The work of a coachman usually consists in taking care 
of the horses, harness, and carriage, and in driving. Some- 
times he has also a saddle or gig horse to look after. Where 
three or more horses are necessary to do the work, he must 
have a boy or man under him. 

The Groom. — A good groom should have been among 
horses from his boyhood. He should have learned his busi- 
ness under a senior. He should have all the regularity, so- 
briety, activity, and cleanliness of the thorough-bred coach- 
man. In general, he is not such a solid character. He is 
somewhat flippant, talkative, fond of company, and much dis- 
posed to make medicinal experiments upon the horses. 

Grooms are of two or three kinds. The v/ord groom, 
though often applied to any man who looks after a horse, is 
most usually confined to a man who has been trained to groom 
and manage horses in the best style. Hence it does not be- 
long to those who work in livery or coaching-stables. In a 
gentleman's stud the groom looks after the saddle-horses em- 
ployed on the road or in the field. Where one is kept for 
the road and another for the field horses, the former is usually 
only the groom, the latter the hunting-groom. Those who 
superintend the management of racehorses, are termed train 
ers or training grooms. 

The work of a groom is very variable. In some places 
he has the charge of only two horses, one for himself and 
one for his master, whom he accompanies on his rides. In 
others he has two horses and a gig ; in some he has three 
horses, or two and a breeding mare with her foal. Two are 
considered full work, but three can be managed very well, 
two being out every day. 

Untrained Grooms are those who diet, dress, and exer- 
cise the horses employed at ordinary work. They can not 
put horses into hunting condition, nor do they know how to 
maintain them in that condition. The thorough-bred groom 
is, or ought to be, able to do both. But it is not everybody 
who requires, or who can afford to keep, a thorough-bred 
groom. His wages are high, and he can always find employ- 
ment from those who need his services. People who keep 
only two or three inferior horses, or perhaps only one, foi 



STABLE OPERATIONS. 77 

pleasure or business, content themselves with an indifTcrent 
groom, one, it may be, who is partly employed about the 
warehouse, the garden, or the dwelling-house. The horse 
or horses can not, of course, be so well tended. They may 
be very well cleaned, but such men can not pat the horses 
into hunting condition, nor maintain them in it, nor bestow all 
the care that hunters require after a day of severe exertion. 
For the horses kept by merchants about town, who seldom 
ride more than ten or twelve miles a-day at a gentle pace, 
nothing of this kind is required, and a groom who would make 
a sorry figure in the hunting stable may serve them perfectly 
well. The man only requires some little dexterity in going 
about a horse, and a little experience of his habits in refer- 
ence to food, drink, and work. These he may acquire with- 
out a long apprenticeship. He may obtain them in farm, liv- 
ery, or posting stables. The thorough-bred groom can learn 
his business completely only under an experienced senior, 
who may have the charge of racing, hunting, or carriage 
horses. 

In the racing-stables a boy is appointed to each horse, and 
these are superintended by the head-groom, or trainer, and 
his assistant, who is termed head-lad. 

Boys. — Under the direction and discipline of a good groom, 
boys of from fourteen to seventeen are soon taught to perform 
the duties of the stable. But until they have been well 
trained, and they must be trained while flexible, they are 
good for very little. It is only in a stable where the disci- 
pline never relaxes that they can learn their business well, 
and acquire those orderly habits which in a manner distin- 
guish the taught from the untaught. 

The boys employed about towns to look after a horse, or a 
horse and gig, generally come from the country, where they 
have seen some service among the cart-horses. Some of 
these boys are quiet, attentive, able to do something, and to 
learn more without much instruction ; but a great many of 
them are awkward, thoughtless, and mischievous, not to be 
depended upon. It is not that their work is difficult to learn 
or to perform, but there is no keeping them at it. They are 
so fond of play, and so little accustomed to restraint, that one 
half of their work is always neglected, and the other half is 
never done in proper times. Everything is to seek when it 
is wanted, and when found not fit for use. Some are much 
worse than others. Many can attend to nothing. Their 
work is made subservient to their play. One will be sent to 

7* 



78 STABLE ECONOMY. 

walk a heated horse till cool, and he must ride the beast as if 
he were riding for a wager. Send him to exercise the horse, 
and he will gallop till he break its knees. Send by him a 
message, and he will forget one half of it, and take at least 
an hour more than he should to deliver the other half. The 
master has more to do for the servant than the servant for the 
master. The boy may not, perhaps, be so much to blame as 
his parents. They have taught him nothing. He has sprung 
up like the wild weeds of the earth. If he has learned any- 
thing, good or bad, it is the result of chance, not of foresight 
on the part of his parents, whom he has scarcely learned even 
to obey. Instead of coming into the world with orderly and 
decent behavior, and a knowledge of what is due to those he 
serves, he has to learn those things from the master. It is 
natural and right that he should be a stern teacher. He has 
to deal with those who are little improved by gentleness. He 
may be severe, and he m.ust, if he would make a good servant, 
and a useful member of society. Order in time and in place 
ought to be learned at home ; but since it is not, that should 
be taught in the first place, as forming a groundwork upon 
which anything may be laid. " A place for everything, and 
everything in its place," is a golden rule. After that, kind- 
ness to the horse should be insisted on. Boys are cruel from 
want of reflection. Until hardened by habit, remonstrance, if 
properly managed, awakens their generous feelings, or ex- 
cites that kind of consideration which saves the defenceless 
from abuse. 

Livery and coaching stables about town are often infested 
by idle boys who want to ride. They hang about the stables 
from morning to night, and contrive to be of some little ser- 
vice to the men, and their reward is a horse to water or to 
exercise. These boys are always doing some mischief, either 
in play or in abuse. It is not for their own good to hang 
about stables in such a disorderly way, and their attendance 
is certainly injurious to the horses. The work should all be 
done by the men who are paid for it. Last year one propri- 
etor lost two horses entirely, and had a third injured by boys, 
whom the proper stablemen had employed. Such accidents 
are very common. 

Strappers. — The men who look after horses at livery, 
and those employed in public conveyances, are termed strap- 
pers. They have nothing to do with the working of the 
horses. Their business is to dress, harness, water, and bed 
them The)' also have to keep the harness in order. In 



STABLE OPERATIONS. 79 

some places they have to feed and exercise the horses ; in 
others, these duties are performed by a head-man and his 
assistant. A strapper should be expert, able, and orderly at 
his work. He usually looks after eight horses, four of which 
are out every day. Some have more, but, with the harness, 
eight is about as many as he can be expected to keep in good 
order, especially during the winter months, and this number 
he may manage in the best style which coaching requires. In 
livery stables the horses need more grooming, and three sad- 
dle horses may be sufficient work for one man. In some 
places, however, he has four or five, and occasionally more. 

The strappers employed at out-stages should be picked 
men, better paid, and better qualified than those who work at 
headquarters, under the eye of the master or his foreman. 
But the best are not to be much trusted. They should be vis- 
ited often, at irregular intervals, without warning, and not at 
one time of the day more than another. The horses should 
be examined in reference to their condition for work, the state 
of the skin, the heels, and the feet. The harness, the stable, 
every part of it, and everything belonging to it, should pass 
imder review every now and then. 

The Head-Ostler or Foreman. — On large establish- 
ments a head-man superintends the strappers, and the general 
management of the horses. His work varies according to the 
size of the stud, and to the time and attention which the owner 
himself can bestow upon it. In some places the owner is in 
constant attendance, and then the head-man is just the mas- 
ter's assistant, having no fixed and regular task. But in gen- 
eral it is his business to feed the horses, or at least to keep 
the provender, give it out as wanted, and see that it be prop- 
erly distributed. He has to keep the men at their duty, taking 
care that everything be done in its own time, and examining 
the work when it is done. He has to regulate the work of 
the horses, dividing it in such a manner that each shall have 
as much as he is fit for, and no more. In small establishments 
the foreman sometimes has a stable of his own to look after, 
which may contain the strange, the spare, the lame, or the 
sick horses. When these exceed two or three, he must 
have an assistant. When properly quaUfied, the foreman 
ought to be, and usually is, empowered to hire and discharge 
the strappers. Sometimes he pays their wages, but that 
belongs more properly to the clerk. 

For a situation of this kind a man requires to have consid- 
erable experience. To maintain order among the strappers, 



80 STABLE ECONOMY. 

and manage the horses with skill, he must be inflexible, just, 
sober, vigilant, careful, well acquainted with the habits of 
horses, and the tricks of the men he has to superintend. He 
should be a discreet tyrant, always enforcing a rigid ad* 
herence to established rules. A man of timid or weak char- 
acter has little chance of maintaining his authority among a 
host of unruly strappers ; and though he have power to dis- 
charge them, he is easily awed or misled by the bold and the 
cunning. He should know his own place, giving no favors 
and receiving none. If he frequent the public-house, to min- 
gle with those who are under him, his power is lost. He 
should not be old, yet well up in years, and perhaps married, 
having his family upon the premises. A man with these 
qualifications is worth liberal wages. 

Sometimes the duties of this man involve moie responsi- 
bility. Occasionally he purchases the provender, employs 
the necessary tradesmen, such as the saddler, shoeing-smith, 
and veterinarian, and has to do with the sale and purchase of 
the horses. Very few men are fit for thest; things. Prov- 
ender is sometimes to be had below the market price, when 
the owner is not at hand to purchase it ; in such a case, the 
foreman might have power to take it. But it is only upon 
certain occasions that this, or anything like it, should be in 
his power. Knavery is apt to creep into such transactions, 
and the master can know little of his business if he is not 
able to manage them better himself. They lay the man open 
to suspicion, whether he deserves it or not. The shoeing- 
smith and saddler always make some deduction from their 
usual charges where there is a great deal of work to be done. 
What men are to serve him, and what deductions are to be 
made, should be settled by the ni. ster himself. Theii work 
is entered in the pass-book, which is paid up at short inter- 
vals. The veterinarian should be, and generally is, allowed 
a fixed salary for medicines, operations, and attendance. In 
the disposal of wornout, and the purchase of new horses, 
the foreman, and the veterinarian may be both consulted, the 
one regarding work, and the other regarding unsoundness ; 
but where the old go or the new come from, is the business 
of the master only. 

The foreaian, perhaps, with the assistance of the shoeing- 
smith, sometimes supplies the place of the veterinarian. In 
this there is more folly than economy. If the work is to be 
well done, it must be performed by men who perfectly under- 
stand it, by men who have been bred to it. Many foremer. 



STABLE OPERATIONS. 81 

pretend to have skill in the veterinary art. They do not say 
that they know all about it, lor in that case they would not 
have to take the place and pay of a stableman ; yet they 
think they may render good service, and they say that much 
very plainly. It is all nonsense and imposition. These pre- 
tenders seldom, almost never, know their own business. If 
they knew that, as they ought to know it, they would be good 
servants without knowing anything else. If they are good 
grooms and better doctors, it is clear they ought to be veter- 
inary surgeons If equally skilful in both capacities, they 
ought to choose that business which will pay best. But 
where have they learned so much about diseases and their 
remedies ? They have seen much — that is, about as much in 
all as a veterinarian in tolerable practice will see in a day. 

Drivers. — These are men who work the horses. Some 
also have the stable management of them. The gentleman's 
coachman has already been spoken of. The others are post- 
boys, hackney-coachmen, cab, omnibus, noddy, and stage 
drivers, carters, ploughmen, and so forth. It is needless to 
speak of these in detail. A glance at what has already been 
said of stablemen will indicate what are the most essential 
qualifications, and what their most common vices, with the 
consequences of their vice. It is only necessary to observe 
farther, that, in addition to sobriety and skill in their employ- 
ment, all those who work the horses should he humane. Every 
stableman should feel for a feeble horse, and spare him ; but 
in those wko drive, kindness is of more importance. I have 
known horses purposely driven to death, or so overtasked, 
that debility, and other consequences of severe labor, gave the 
driver an excuse for demanding exchange. These things 
have been done, sometimes because the horse was too slow, 
too fast, or too feeble ; sometimes merely because he was 
awkward to manage, or did not please the eye of the driver. 
Such things could never happen in the hands of an humane 
man. 

But, though the horses are sometimes purposely abused and 
destroyed ly cruel drivers, they are much oftener injured by 
bad drivers. They are often lamed by starting, and by stop- 
ping them too suddenly. They ought to have some warning 
in both cases ; it always indicates bad driving when a horse 
is thrown upon his knees at starting, or upon his haunches at 
stopping, or upon his side at turning. A fall is not always 
the consequence, but some part is sprained by the violent 
effort which the horse is compelled to make in obeying the 



82 STABLE ECONOMY. 

oit. A bad driver is also apt to overwork an unseasoned or 
a hot horse, especially when driving more than one. Hf» 
often allows a free-working horse to do more than his share 
Drunkenness, through dangerous in every situation, is to 
be avoided more in the driver than in the stableman. Most 
frequently he loses all skill in driving, and is liable to all the 
accidents arising from the want of it. Very often he retains 
his senses sufficiently to manage the horses, and yet does 
them a great deal of mischief, though he may not run into a 
ditch, nor upset the vehicle. The racing madness falls upon 
him ; he challenges all who travel in the same direction, and 
he must heat all ; or, if there be no one with whom he can 
contend, he will run against time. Hence the horses are 
lamed or overworked, or injured in various other ways 

GROOMING. 

In general, the word grooming is confined to those opera- 
tions which have cleanliness for their object. To made the 
horse clean, and to keep him clean, form a part, and in many 
stables the whole of grooming ; but the health of the horse is 
involved, and some care must be taken to preserve that. He 
comes to the stable, wet with rain, or heated by exertion, as 
c/ell as soiled by the road mud. While he is cleaned, he 
must also be cooled and dried. The operations which pro- 
luce a clean skin, and those which tend to prevent the con- 
Roquences of exertion and of exposure, are so cjosely con- 
nected that they must be considered together. It is not my 
intention to describe any of them very minutely ; grooming is 
easily learned by imitation ; and oral are better than written 
instructions. 

The duties of the groom considered in relation to time 
usirtilly commence at half-past five or six in the morning. 
Sometimes he must be in the stable much earlier, and some- 
times he need not be there before seven. It depends upon 
the time the stable is shut up at night, the work there is to 
do in the morning, and the hour at which the horse is wanted. 
When the horse is going out early and to fast work, the man 
should be in the stable an hour before the horse goes to 
the road. In general he arrives about six o'clock, gives 
the horse a little water, and then his morning feed of grain. 
While the horse is eating his breakfast, the man shakes up 
the litter, sweeps out the stable, and prepares to dress the 
horse, or take him to exercise. In summer, the morning ex- 



STABLE OPERATIONS. 83 

ercise is often given before breakfast, the horse getting water 
in the stable, or out of doors, and his grain upon returning 
In winter, the horse is dressed in the morning, and exercised 
or prepared for work in the forenoon. He is again dressed 
when he comes in ; at mid-day he is fed. The remainder 
of the day is occupied in much the same way, the horse re- 
ceiving more exercise and another dressing ; his third feed at 
four, andhisfourth, at eight. The hours of feeding vary accord- 
ing to the number of times the horse is fed. Hunters are usual- 
ly fed five times a-day during the hunting season. The most 
of saddle-horses are fed only three. The allowance of grain 
for all working-horses should be given in at least three por- 
tions, and when the horse receives as much as he will eat, it 
ought to be given affive times. These should be distributed 
at nearly equal intervals. When the groom is not employed in 
feeding, dressing, and exercising the horse, he has the stable 
to arrange several times a-day, harness to clean, some of the 
horses to trim, and there are many minor duties which he 
must manage at his leisure. The stable is usually shut up 
at night about eight o'clock, when the horse is eating his 
supper. 

Dressing before Work. — To keep the skin in good order, 
the horse must be dressed once every day, besides the clean- 
ing, which is made after work. This dressing is usually 
performed in the morning, or in the forenoon. It varies in 
character according to the state of the skin and the value of 
the horse. The operation is performed by means of the brush, 
the currycomb, and the wisp, which is a kind of duster, made 
of straw, hay, matting, or horse-hair. 

The Brush, composed of bristles, and varying in size to suit 
the strength of the operator, removes all the dust and furfura- 
ceous matter lodged at the roots of the hair, and adhering to its 
surface. It also polishes the hair, and when properly applied, 
the friction probably exerts a beneficial influence upon the 
skin, conducive to health, and to the horse's personal ap- 
pearance. 

The Currycomb is composed of five or six iron combs, each 
having short small teeth ; these are fixed on an iron back, to 
which a handle is attached. There is also one blade, some- 
times two, without teeth, to prevent the combs from sinking 
too deep. The currycomb serves to raise and to separate the 
hairs that are matted together by perspiration and dust, and to 
remove the loose mud. Like the brush, it may also stimulate 
the skin, and have some effect ujon the secretions of this 



84 STABLE ECONOMY. 

organ ; but, except among thick, torpid-skinned, long-haired 
horses, it is too harsh for this purpose. In grooming thorough- 
bred, or fine-skinned horses, its principal use is to clean the 
dust from the brush, which is done by drawing the one smartly 
across the other. 

The Wisp is a kind of duster. It removes the light dust and 
the loose hairs not taken away by the brush ; it polishes the 
hair and makes the coat lie smooth and regular. The brush 
penetrates between the hairs and reaches the skin, but the 
wisp acts altogether on the surface, cleaning and polishing 
only those hairs, and those portions of hairs, which are not 
covered by others. Applied with some force, the wisp beats 
away loose dust lodged about the roots. It is often employed 
to raise the temperature of the skin, and to dry the hair when 
the horse is cold and wet. In many stables the currycomb 
and the wisp form the principal, or the only instruments of 
purification. 

Valuable horses are usually dressed in the stable. The 
groom tosses the litter to the head of the stall, puts up the 
gangway bales, turns round the horse, to have his head to the 
light, removes the breast-piece, and hood, when a hood is 
worn : he takes away the surcingle and folds back the quarter- 
piece, but does not remove it entirely. It keeps the dust oflf 
the horse. With the brush in his left hand, and the curry- 
comb in his right, he commences on the left side of the horse, 
and finishes the head, neck, and forequarter ; then his hands 
change tools, and he performs the like service on the right 
side. The head requires a deal of patience to clean it proper- 
ly ; the hairs run in so many diflferent directions, and there 
ars so many depressions and elevations, and the horse is often 
so unwilling to have it dressed, that it is generally much 
neglected by bad grooms. The dust about the roots, upon 
the inside and the outside of the ears, is removed by a few 
strokes of the brush, but the hair is polished by repeatedly 
and rapidly drawing the hands over the whole ear. The 
process is well enough expressed by the word stripping. 
Having finished the fore part of the horse, the groom returns 
his head to the manger, and prepares to dress the body and 
the hind quarters. A little straw is thrown under the hind 
feet to keep them ofi* the stones ; the clothes are drawn off, 
and the horse's head secured. The clothes are taken to the 
door, shook, and in dry weather exposed to the air, till the 
horse is dressed. After the brushing is over, every part ef 
the skin having been entirely deprived of dust, and the hair 



STABLE OPERATIONS. 85 

polished till it glistens like satin, the groom passes over the 
whole with a wisp, with which, or with a linen rubber, dry or 
slightly damped, he concludes the most laborious portion of the 
dressing. The clothes are brought in, and replaced upon the 
horse. His mane, foretop, and tail, are combed, brushed, and, 
if not hanging equally, damped. The eyes, nostrils, muzzle, 
anus, and sheath, are wiped with a damp sponge ; the feet are 
picked out, and perhaps washed. If the legs be white and 
soiled with urine, they require washing with warm water and 
soap, after which they are rubbed till dry. When not washed, 
the legs are polished partly by the brush and the wisp, but 
chiefly by the hands. The bed and the stable being arranged, 
the horse is done up for the morning. 

It is not an easy matter to dress a horse in the best style. 
It is a laborious operation, requiring a good deal of time, and 
with many horses much patience and dexterity. Ignorant and 
lazy grooms never perform it well. They confine themselves 
to the surface. They do more with the wisp than with the 
brush. The horse when thus dressed may not look so far 
amiss, but upon rubbing the fingers into his skin they receive 
a white greasy stain, never communicated when the horse has 
been thoroughly dressed. 

All horses, however, can not be groomed in this manner. 
From strappers, carters, farm-servants, and many grooms, it 
must not be expected. Such a dressing is not of great ser- 
vice, at least it is not essential to the horses they look after, 
nor it is practicable if it were. The men have not time to 
bestow it. 

The horse may be dressed in the stable or in the open air. 
When weather permits, that is, when dry and not too cold, it 
is better for both the horse and his groom that the operation 
be performed out of doors. When several dirty horses are 
dressed in the stable at the same time, the air is quickly loaded 
with impurities. Upon looking into the nostrils of the horse, 
they are found quite black, covered with a thick layer of dust. 
This is bad for the lungs of both the horse and the man. I 
suppose it is with the intention of blowing it away, that stable- 
men are in the habit of making a hissing noise with the mouth 
The dust, besides entering, and prabably irritating the nostrils, 
falls upon the clean horses, the harness; and everything else. 
Racers and other valuable horses are almost invariable dress- 
ed in the stable, and there they are safest. They have little 
mud about them [and from frequent grooming and consUntly 

8 



S6 STABLE ECONOMY. 

being clothed, little dandruff in, or dust on their hair] to soil 
the stable. 

Inferior stablemen sometimes dress a horse very wretch- 
edly. That which they do is not well done, and it is not 
done in the right way. They are apt to be too harsh with 
the currycomb. Some thin-skinned horses can not bear it, 
and they do not always require it. It should be applied only 
when and where necessary. This instrument loosens the 
mud, raises and separates the hair ; and when the hair is 
long, the comb cuts much of it away, especially when used 
with considerable force. It is not at all times proper to thin 
a horse's coat suddenly, and, when improper, it should be 
forbidden. Having raised and separated the hair, the comb 
should be laid aside. To use it afterward is to thin the coat ; 
and in general, if the coat be too long, it should be thinned 
by degrees, not at two or three, but at ten or twelve thinnings. 
Then, the currycomb has little to do about the head, legs, 
flanks, or other parts that are bony, tender, or thinly covered 
with hair. When used in these places it should be drawn in 
the direction of the" hairs, or obliquely across them, and lightly 
applied. The comb is often too sharp. For some horses it 
should always be blunt. The horse soon shows whether or 
not it is painful to him. If the operation be absolutely neces- 
sary, and can not be performed without pain, the pain must 
be suffered. But it is only in the hand of a rude or unskilful 
groom that the comb gives any pain. Some never think of 
what the horse is suffering under their operations. They 
use the comb as if they wanted to scrape off the skin. They 
do not apparently know the use of the instrument. Without 
any regard to the horse's struggles, they persist in scratching 
and rubbing, and rubbing and scratching, when there is not 
the slightest occasion for employing the comb. On a tender 
skin, the comb requires very little pressure ; it should be 
drawn with the hair, or across it, rather than against it, and 
th/^re should be no rubbing. The pain is greatest when the 
comb is made to pass rapidly backward and forward several 
times over the same place. It should describe a sweeping, 
not a rubbing motion. 

For some tender horses even the brush is too hard. In the 
flank, the groin, on the inside of the thigh, there can be little 
dust to remove which a soft wisp will not take away, and it 
is needless to persist in* brushing these and similar places 
when the horse offers much resistance. In using it about the 
head or legs, care must be taken not to strike the horse with 



STABLE OPERATIONS. 87 

ihe back of the brush. These bony parts are easily hurt, 
and after repeated blows the horse becomes suspicious and 
troublesome. For thin-skinned irritable horses the brush 
should be soft, or somewhat worn. 

Where the currycomb is used too much, the brush is used 
too little. The expertness of a groom may be known by the 
manner in which he applies the brush. An experienced 
operator will do as much with a wisp of straw as a half-made 
groom will do with the brush. He merely cleans, or at the 
very most polishes the surface, and nothing but the surface. 
The brush should penetrate the hair and clean the skin, and 
to do this it must be applied with some vigor, and pass re- 
peatedly over the same place. It is oftenest drawn along the 
hair, but sometimes across and against it. To sink deeply, 
it must fall flatly and with some force, and be drawn with 
considerable pressure. 

When the horse is changing his coat, both the brush and 
the currycomb should be used as little and lightly as pos- 
sible. A damp whisp will keep him tolerably decent till the 
new coat be fairly on, and it will not remove the old one 
too fast. 

The ears and the legs are the parts most neglected by un- 
trained grooms. They should be often inspected, and his 
attention directed to them. White legs need to be often 
washed with soap and water [and hand-rubbed], and all legs 
that have little hair about them require a good deal of hand- 
rubbing. White horses are the most difficult to keep, and in 
the hands of a bad groom they are always yellow about the 
hips and hocks. The dung and urine are allowed so often to 
dry on the hair that at last it is dyed, and the other parts 
are permitted to assume a dingy smoky hue, like unbleached 
linen. 

Dressing Vicious Horses. — A few horses have an aversion 
to the operations of the groom from the earliest period of 
their domestication. In spite of the best care and manage- 
ment, they continue to resist grooming with all the art and 
force they can exert. This is particularly the case with 
stallions, and many thorough-bred horses not doing much 
work. But a great many horses are* rendered vicious to 
clean by the awkwardness, timidity, or folly of the keeper. 
An awkward man gives the horse more pain than ought to 
attend the operation ; a timid man allows the horse to master 
him ; and a mischievous fellow is always learning him tricks, 



88 STABLE ECONOMY. 

teaching him to bite, or to strike in play, which easily passes 
into malice. 

Biting may be prevented by putting on a muzzle, or by 
tying the head to the rack, or to the ring outside of the stable. 
When reversed in the stall, the head may be secured by the 
pillar-reins. A muzzle often deters a horse from attempting 
to bite, but some will strike a man to the ground though they 
can not seize him. These must be tied up. Many harness- 
horses are perfectly quiet while they are bridled, and it is 
sufficient to let the bridle remain on, or to put it on, till they 
be dressed. Others again are quite safe when blindfolded. 
Kicking horses are more dangerous than biters. A great 
many strike out, and are apt to injure an awkward groom ; 
yet they are not so bad but an expert fellow may manage 
them, without using any restraint. A switch held always in 
the hand, in view of the horse, and lightly applied, or threat- 
ened when he attempts lo strike, will render others com- 
paratively docile. A few permit their hind quarters to be 
cleaned while their clothes are on. Some there are, how- 
ever, that can not be managed so easily. They strike out, 
those especially that lead idle lives, so quickly and so ma- 
liciously, that the groom is in great danger, and can not gel 
his work properly performed. There are two remedies — the 
arm-strap and the twitch. Where another man can not be 
spared to assist, one of the fore legs is tied up ; the knee is 
bent till the foot almost touches the elbow, and a broad buck- 
ling-strap is applied over the forearm and the pastern. The 
horse then stands upon three legs, and the groom is in no 
danger of a kick. Until the horse is accustomed to stand in 
this way, he is apt to throw himself down ; for the first two 
or three times the leg should be held up by a man, rather 
than tied with a strap. The horse should stand on a thick 
bed of litter, so that he may not be injured should he fall. 
In course of time he may perhaps become quieter, and the 
arm-strap may be thrown aside. It should not be applied 
always to the same leg, for it produces a tendency to knuck- 
ling over of the pastern, which, in a great measure, is avoided 
by tying up each leg alternately, the right to-day, the left 
to-morrow. Even the arm-strap will not prevent some horses 
from kicking ; some can stand on two legs, and some will 
throw themselves down. The man must just coax the horse, 
and get over the operation with as little irritation as possible , 
Upon -extraordinary occasions the twitch may be employed, 
bu*. It must not be applied every day, otherwise the lip upon 



STABLE OPERATIONS. 89 

tirhich it is placed becomes inflamed, or palsied. When re- 
straint must be resorted to, the man should be doubly active 
in getting through his work, that the horse may not be kept 
for a needless length of time in pain. He may, in some 
cases, give the horse a very complete dressing when he is 
fatigued, and not disposed to offer much resistance. 

Irritable, high-bred horses, often cut and bruise their legs 
when under the grooming operations. They should have 
boots, similar to those used against speedy cutting. 

Utility of Dressing. — It improves the horse's appearance; 
it renders the coat short, fine, glossy, and smooth. The coat 
of a horse in blooming condition is always a little oily. The 
hair rejects water. The anointing matter which confers this 
property is secreted by the skin, and the secretion seems to 
be much influenced by good grooming. Slow-working horses 
often have skins which a fox-hunter would admire, although 
they may be receiving very little care from the groom. But 
the food of these horses has a good deal to do with the skin, 
and their work is not of that kind which impairs the beauty 
of a fine glossy coat. They drink much water, and they get 
warm boiled Aiod every night. They do not often perspire 
a great deal, but they always perspire a little. Fast-working 
horses have hard food, a limited allowance of water ; and 
every day, or every other day, they are drenched in perspira- 
tion, which forbids constant* perspiration, and which carries 
off, or washes away the oily matter. Hence, unless a horse 
that is often and severely heated, be well groomed, have his 
skin stimulated, and his hair polished by the brush, he will 
never look well. His coat has a dead, dim appearance, a 
dry, soft feel. To the hand the hair feels like a coarse, dead 
fur ; the most beautiful coat often assumes this state in one 
or two days. Some horses always look ill, and no grooming 
will make them look well ; but all may be improved, or ren- 
dered tolerably decent, except at moulting time. Dressing 
is not the only means by which the coat is beautified. There 
are other processes, of which I shall speak presently. 

Among stablemen, dressing is performed only for the sake 
of the horse's personal appearance. They are not aware that 
it has any influence upon health, and therefore they generally 
neglect the skin of a horse that is not at work. In the open 
fields, the skin is not loaded with the dust and perspiration 
which it contracts in the stable, or loose box ; and all the 
cleaning it obtains, or needs, is performed by the rain, and 
by the friction it receives when the horse rolls upon the 



^0 STABLE ECONOMY. 

ground, or rubs himself against a tree. He comes home with 
u very ugly and a very dirty coat, but the skin is cleaner than 
if the horse had been all the time in a stable. I think I have 
observed that colls who have never been stabled, preserve a 
cleaner skin at grass than those that have been long accus- 
tomed to a daily dressing. It would be foolish to attempt 
any explanation of this before it is ascertained to be true. I 
am not sure of it. But it is very well known that an old 
horse is very apt to become mangy and lousy if kept long in 
the stable without grooming. I do not know what effect the 
friction of a daily dressing may have upon the general health. 
Its beneficial influence upon the human body is acknowledged 
by all medical men, and, especially in warm countries, it is 
duly appreciated. That friction promotes the secretions of 
the horse's skin, is evident from the permanent gloss which it 
imparts to the hair ; that a disordered state of the skin pro- 
duces a disordered state of the stomach, the bowels, and the 
lungs, can hardly be denied, since it is universally admitted 
that a particular state of these latter organs is constantly fol- 
lowed by derangement of the former. If diseases in the 
stomach or bowels can produce diseases in the skin, surely 
diseases in the skin may produce diseases in the stomach. 

Want of Dressing, whether it affect the general health or 
not, produces lice and mange. Mange may arise from causes 
independent of a neglected sk^n, but it very rarely visits a 
well-groomed horse. Bad food or starvation has somethmg 
to do in the production of lice ; but the want of dressing has 
quite as much, or more. It is the business of the stableman 
to prevent mange, so far as prevention is possible. Its treat- 
ment belongs to the veterinarian, and need not be here de- 
scribed. But it is the groom's duty both to prevent and to 
cure lousiness. 

Lice may accumulate in great numbers before they are dis- 
covered. Sometimes they are diffused over all the skin ; at 
other times they are confined to the mane, the tail, and parts 
adjacent. The horse is frequently rubbing himself, and oftem 
the hair falls out in large patches. There are many lotions, 
powders, and ointments, for destroying lice. Ointments are 
not easily applied, and they are seldom effective ; but when 
the vermin are confined to a little space, the mercurial oint- 
ment rubbed well into the skin, is better than any other oily 
application. [This is a dangerous remedy, and after being 
applied, the horse's head should be so confined that he can 
not touch the anointed parts with his tongue or lips, or be 



STABLE OPERATIONS. 91 

placed within reach of any other animal, otherwise there is 
danger of their getting the mercurial ointment into the mouth, 
and thus cause death. We have known valuable animals 
occasionally lost in this way. Refuse oil or lard, rubbed on 
a lousy beast of any kind, immediately destroys the vermin, 
and there is no danger to be apprehended from this applica- 
tion. It merely occasions the hair being shed earlier in the 
spring, and requires a little extra attention in housing such 
animals as have been affected.] A decoction of tobacco is 
an effectual remedy. A pint of boiling water is poured upon 
an ounce of twist or shag tobacco, and, when cold, the liquor 
is applied with a sponge, so as to wet the hair to the root. 
A solution of corrosive sublimate, in the proportion of one 
drachm to a pint of water, is also a very good remedy, but 
not to be employed when much of the skin is raw. [This is 
likewise a dangerous remedy.] When the lice are very nu- 
merous, spread over great part of the body, it is a good plan 
to use both the decoction and the solution. One half of the 
body may be dressed with the tobacco liquor, and the other 
half with the solution of sublimate. Vinegar, mixed with 
three times its bulk of water, is a good application, and not 
so dangerous as the other. It is more irritating, but the 
irritation soon subsides and does not sicken the horse ; to- 
bacco often will. Next day the skin should be examined, 
and wherever there is any sign of living vermin, another ap- 
plication should be made. Two days afterward the horsb 
should be washed with soapy water, warm, and applied with 
a brush that will reach the skin without irritating it. 

In many cases, none of these remedies are necessary. It 
is sufficient to wash the horse all over with soapy water. 
Black soap is better than any other. It need not, and should 
not oe rubbed upon the skin. It may be beat into the water 
till it forms a strong lather, and that should be applied with a 
brush and washed off with clean warm water. Care must 
be taken that the horse do not catch cold. He should be 
thoroughly washed, but dried as quickly as possible, and get 
a walk afterward if the weather be favorable. 

The clothes should be dipped into boiling water, and the 
inside of the saddle wet with the sublimate lotion. The litter 
should all be turned out, and burned, or buried where swine, 
dogs, or poultry, will not get among it. If it can not be 
easily removed without scattering it across the stable or yard, 
a solution of quick-lime may be dashed over it, before it is 
taken from the stall. 



92 STABLE ECONOMY. 

Dressing after Work. — This operation varies according 
to many circumstances ; it is influenced by the kind of horse, 
the state and time in which he arrives at tlie stable. Slow- 
working horses merely require to be dried and cleaned ; those 
of fast work may require something more, and those which 
arrive at a late hour are not usually dressed as they would be 
by coming home earlier. The principal objects in dressing a 
horse after work are to get him dry, cool, and clean. It is 
only, however, in stables tolerably well regulated, that these 
three objects are aimed at, or attainable. Carters, and other 
inferior stablemen, endeavor to remove the mud which adheres 
to the belly, the feet, and the legs, and they are not often very 
particular as to the manner in which this is done. If a- pond 
or river be at hand, or on the road home, the horse is driven 
through it, and his keeper considers that the best, which I 
suppose means the easiest, way of cleaning him. Others, 
having no such convenience, are content to throw two or three 
buckets of water over the legs. Their only way of drying 
the horse is by sponging the legs, and wisping the body, and 
this is generally done as if it were a matter of form more 
than of utility. There are some lazy fellows who give them- 
selves no concern about dressing the horse. They put him 
in the stable wet and dirty as he comes off the road ; and 
after he is dry, perhaps he gets a scratch with the currycomb, 
and a rub with the straw-wisp. Fast-working horses require 
very different treatment. The rate at which they travel ren- 
ders them particularly liable to all those diseases arising from, 
or connected with changes of temperature. In winter, the 
horse comes off the road, heated, wet, and bespattered with 
mud ; in summer, he is hotter, drenched in perspiration, or 
half dry, his coat matted, and sticking close to the skin. 
Sometimes he is quite cool, but wet, and clothed in mud. 
The treatment he receives can not be always the same. In 
summer, after easy work, his feet and legs may be washed 
and dried, and his body dressed in nearly the same manner 
that it i-s dressed before work. The wisp dries the places 
that are moist with perspiration, the currycomb removes the 
mud, and the brush polishes the hair, lays it, and takes away 
the dust. The dressing in such a case is simple and soon 
over, but it is all the horse requires. When drenched in rain 
or perspiration, he must be dried by means of the scraper, 
,he wisp, and evaporation ; when heated, he must be walked 
about till cool, and sometimes he may be bathed, that he may 
be both cooled and cleaned. 



STABLE OPERATIONS. 93 

Sci-aping. — The scraper is sometimes termed a sweat- 
knlte. Ill some siables it is just a piece of hoop iron, about 
twenty inches long, by one and a half broad ; in the racing 
and huntinj^-stables it is made of wood, sharp only on one 
edge, and having ihe back thick and strong, When properly 
handled, it is a very useful instrument. The groom taking 
an extremity m each hand, passes over the neck, back, belly, 
quarters, sides, every place where it can operate ; and with a 
gentle and steady pressure, he removes the wet mud, the 
rain, and the perspiration. Fresh horses do not understand 
this, and are apt to resist it, A little more than the usual 
care and gentleness at the first two or three dressings, render 
them familiar with it. The pressure applied must vary at 
different parts of the body, being lightest where the coat and 
he skin are thinnest. The scraper must pass over the same 
places several times, especially the belly, to which the water 
gravitates from the back and sides. It has little or nothing to 
do about the legs ; these parts are easily dried by a large 
sponge, and are apt to be injured by the scraper. This op- 
eration finished, the horse, if hot, must be walked about a lit- 
tle, and if cool, he must be dried. 

Walking a Heated Horse. — Everybody knows that a horse 
ought not to be stabled when perspiring very copiously after 
severe exertion ; he must not stand still. It is known that 
he is likely to catch cold, or to take inflamed lungs, or to 
founder. By keeping him in gentle motion till cool, these 
evils are prevented. This is all that stablemen can say about 
it, and perhaps little more can be said with certaint) We 
must go a little deeper than the skin, and consider the state 
of the internal organs at the moment the horse has finished a 
severe task. The action of the heart, the bloodvessels, the 
nerves, and perhaps other parts, has been greatly increased, 
to correspond with the extraordinary action of the muscles, 
the instruments of motion. The circulation, once excited, 
does not become tranquil the moment exertion ceases. The 
heart and other internal organs which act in concert with the 
heart, continue for a time to perform their functions with all . 
the energy which violent muscular exertion demands, and 
they do mischief before they are aware that their extraordin- 
ary services are no longer required. An irregularity in the 
distribution of the blood takes place ; some part receives 
more than it needs, and an intlammation is the result. Mo- 
tion prevents this, because it keeps up a demand for blood 
among the muscles. The transition from rapid motion to resi 



94 



STABLE ECONOMY. 



is too sudden, and should be broken by gentle motion. If the 
heart and nervous system could be restrained as easily as the 
action of the voluntary muscles, there would be no need for 
walking a heated horse, since it would be sufficient to render 
all the organs tranquil at the same time. 

This brief analysis of what is going on internally, may be 
useful to those who would know exactly when it is safe to 
put a heated horse to perfect rest. It is needless to keep him 
in motion after the pulse has sunk to nearly its natural number 
of beats per minute, which is under 40. Stablemen go by 
the heat of the skin, but on a hot day the skin will often re- 
main above its usual heat, for a good while after the system is 
quite calm. The state of the skin, however, in general indi- 
cates the degree of internal excitement with sufficient accu- 
racy. 

The object, then, in walking a heated horse, is to allay the 
excitement of* exertion in all parts of the body at the same 
time and by degrees, to keep the muscles working because 
the heart is working. The motion should always be slow, 
and the horse led, not ridden. If wet, and the weather cold, 
his walk may be faster than summer weather requires. 

When the state of the weather, and the want of a covered 
ride, put walking out of the question, the horse' must eithei 
go to the stable or he must sutler a little exposure to the rain. 
When much excited, that is, when very warm, it is better that 
he should walk for a few minutes in the rain, than that he 
should stand quite still. But a horse seldom comes in very 
warm while it is raining. If he must go into the stable it 
should not be too close. To a horse hot, perspiring, and 
breathing very quick, a warm stable is particularly distressing. 
Some famt under it. Till somewhat calm he may stand with 
his head to the door, but not in a current of cold air, at least 
not after he begins to cool. 

Walking a Wet Horse. — Gentle motion to a heated horse 
is necessary, to prevent the evils likely to arise from one set 
of organs doing more than another set requires. But in many 
cases motion alter work is useful when the horse is not heat- 
ed. He may come in drenched with rain, but quite cool, and 
there may be no one at hand to dry him, or his coat may be 
so long that one man can not get him dry before he begins to 
shiver. In such cases the horse should be walked about. 
Were he stabled or allowed to stand at rest in this state, he 
would be very likely to suffer as much injury as if he wera 
suddenly brought to a stand-still when in a high state of per 



STABLE OPERATIONS. 95 

spiralion. Evaporation commences - the moisture with which 
the skin is charged is converted into vapor, and as it assumes 
this form it robs the horse of a large quantity of heat. If he 
be kept in motion while this cooling and drying process is 
going on, an extra quantity of heat is formed, which may 
very well be spared for converting the water into vapor, while 
sufftcient is retained to keep the skin comfortably warm. 
Everybody must understand the difference between sitting 
and walking in wet clothes. If the horse be allowed to stand 
while wet, evaporation still goes on. Every particle of mois- 
ture takes away so much heat, but there is no stimulus to pro- 
duce the formation of an extra quantity of heat ; in a little 
while, the skin becomes sensibly cold, the blood circulates 
slowly, there is no demand for it on the surface, nor among 
the muscles, and it accumulates upon internal organs. By- 
and-by the horse takes a violent shivering fit ; after this has 
continued for a time, the system appears to become aware 
that it has been insidiously deprived of more heat than it can 
conveniently spare ; then a process is set up for repairing the 
loss, and for meeting the increased demand. But before this 
Ccllorifying process is fairly established, the demand for an 
extra quantity of heat has probably ceased. The skin has 
become dry, and there is no longer any evaporation. Hence 
the heat accumulates, and the horse is fevered. I do not 
pretend to trace events any further. The next thing of which 
we become aware is generally an inflammation of the feet, 
the throat, the lungs, or some other part. But we can not 
tell what is going on between the time that the body becomes 
hot, and the time that inflammation appears. I am not even 
certain that the other changes take place in the order in 
which they are enumerated ; nor am I sure that there is no 
other change. The analysis may be defective ; something 
may take place that I have not observed, and possibly the loss 
of heat by evaporation may not always produce these effects 
without assistance. It is positively known, however, that 
there is danger in exposing a horse to cold when he is not in 
motion ; and, which is the same thing, it is equally, indeed 
more dangerous to let him stand when he is wet. If he can 
not be dried by manual labor, he must be moved about till he 
is dried bv evaporation. 

Wisping a Wet Horse. — When there is sufficient strength 
m the stable, the proper way to dry the horse is by rubbing 
him with wisps. After removing all the water that can be 
taken away with the scraper, two men commence on each 



96 STABLE ECONOMY. 

side. They rub the skin with soft wisps ; those which ab- 
sorb moisture most readily are the best, and should be often 
changed. None but a bred groom can dry a horse expe- 
ditiously and well in this way. The operation requires some 
action, and a good deal of strength. An awkward groom can 
not do it, and a lazy fellow will not. They will wisp the 
horse for a couple of hours, and leave him almost as wet as 
at the beginning. They lay the hair, but do not dry it, and 
they are sure to neglect the legs and the belly, the very parts 
that have most need to be dried quickly. The man must put 
some strength into his arm. He must rub hard, and in all 
directions, across, and against the hair, oftener than over it. 
His wisp should be firm yet soft, the straw broken. Some 
can not even make this simple article. A stout fellow may 
take one in each hand, if only two are employed about the 
horse ; and a boy must often take one in both his hands. Two 
men may dry a horse in half an hour, a little more or a little 
less, according to his condition, the length of his coat, and 
the state of the weather. 

Clothing a Wet Horse. — When the hofse can neither be 
dried by the wisp, nor kept in motion, some other means must 
be taken to prevent him catching cold. He may be scraped, 
and then clothed, or he may be clothed without scraping. 
This is not a good practice, nor a substitute for grooming ; 
it is merely an expedient which may be occasionally resorted 
to when the horse must be stabled wet as he comes off the 
road. Clothing renders him less likely to catch cold, but it 
does not perform the duty that ought to be performed by the 
groom. When the horse is completely and quickly dried by 
manual labor, there is not the slightest chance of his suffering 
any mischief from cold ; the friction of the wisp keeps the 
blood on the surface, and the horse can be put up quite com- 
fortable. When he is kept in motion till the moisture has all 
evaporated, he can suffer no more injury than if he were 
brought in quite dry. When clothing is applied, it is with the 
intention of checking evaporation. It makes this process go 
on more slowly than if the horse were naked ; in consequence 
he loses less heat in a given time, and he never becomes very 
cold. The clothing also absorbs much of the water, which, 
if allowed to evaporate, would take away much heat that is 
thus retained. Of course, the horse remains wet for a longer 
time than if he were unclothed. But it is doubtful if moisture 
applied occasionally for an hour or two on the skin is inju- 
rious. It probably has some influence ; but it is well known 



.STABLE OPERATlOxXS. 97 

iliat cold has much more. Long-contmued moisture injures 
ihe coat, destroys its glossy appearance ; but I am not aware 
that it does anything else. I am not speaking of moisture 
applied for many successive hours, but of that which is re- 
tained perhaps an hour longer by clothing than it would remain 
if allowed to eA'^aporate without interruption. I am aware that 
a horse is apt to perspire if clothed up when his coat is wet 
or damp, j^ut this takes place only when the clothing is too 
heavy, or the horse too warm. In the case under considera- 
tion, the clothing, unless the horse be cold, is not intended to 
heat him, but to prevent him from becoming cold. In hot 
weather, a wet horse requires less care ; he need not be 
clothed, for evaporation will not render him too cold ; and if 
his coat be long, it will, without the assistance of clothing, 
keep the skin tolerably warm even in weather that is not hot> 
In all cases the cloth should be of woollen, and thrown closely 
over the body, not bound by the roller, and in many cases it 
should be changed for a drier and a lighter one, as it becomes 
charged with moisture. 

To many people all this care about a wet horse will appear 
to be superfluous. They will observe that horses are fre- 
quently exposed to all weathers, and to the worst of stable 
treatment, without receiving any apparent injury. This is 
true with regard to many horses ; their work is not exciting, 
not requiring that exertion which agitates the whole frame. 
There are horses, too, of less value, but performing work of 
the severest kind, upon whom a great deal of care can not be 
bestowed. The proprietor may think it is cheaper to let the 
horses run considerable risk, than to keep a sufficient number 
of men for taking better care of them. These can be right 
only when their horses are very worthless, and perhaps not 
then. In a /aluable stud it is otherwise. The extra expense 
of such careful treatment is not to be considered where horses 
are worth from fifty pounds to more than five hundred. It is 
also true that among stage-coach, and other horses of a similar 
kind, there are many who do not receive any injury from a 
wet coat. Those that have been gradually inured to expo- 
sure, or to stand unheeded till they dry, may feel cold and un- 
comfortable, and have a long, rough coat, but their health re- 
mains unaffected. The power of the system to accommodate 
itself to circumstances is very great. These horses are as 
easily wet to the skin as other horses ; but their skin has 
learned to furnish an additional supply of heat so soon and as 
often as the evaporating process demands it. Such horses 

9 



98 STABLE ECONOMf. 

require little care, though more would make them look better 
But stablemen who know this are apt to treat all the horsea 
alike. The young and the delicate must have additional care 
till they are inured to exposure. 

All horses, whatever be their age, condition, and work, are 
most easily injured by exposure to cold, after they have been 
heated by exertion. Every man may have proof of this in his 
own person. After perspiring he feels cold and-disposed to 
shiver, though by this time the skin may be quite dry. It is 
the same with the horse. Before he has been heated he might 
stand in the cold, or with his coat wet for perhaps half an 
hour, without any danger ; but after he has perspired pretty 
freely from exertion, motionless exposure in a cold atmosphere 
for fifteen minutes will do him more harm than he would re- 
ceive in thirty minutes before the exertion ; or, in the one 
case, he would be none the worse — in the other, he would 
have a cough next day. 

Therefore, a wet horse requires most care when his work 
has heated him. He must be dried more quickly, or kept in 
motion for a longer time than if he had not been excited. 

It is continued cold that does the mischief in all cases ; 
some, from habit, will bear much more than others, but none 
seem able to bear it so well after as before perspiring. The 
intolerance of cold seems to remain for an hour or two aftei 
the horse is quite cool, and to increase as the skin loses iti 
heat. 

The first symptom of approaching danger is staring of the 
coat ; if the horse be immediately put into a warm stable, oi 
warmly clothed, or put in motion, he may, and probably will, 
escape. The second symptom is shivering, which ought to 
be quickly arrested by applying warmth. There is no danger 
in exposure, so long as the skin remains comfortably warm 
or hot. 

To Remove the Mud. — There are two ways of removing 
the mud. One may be termed the dry, and another the 
w^et mode. The first is performed by means of the scraper 
and the currycomb, or a kind of brush made of whalebone, 
which answers much better than the currycomb. In most of 
the well-regulated coaching-stables, the strappers are never 
allowed to apply water to a horse that has come muddy off the 
road [and in no stable should the mud be allowed to be re 
moved from the horse by washing, except he be hand-rubbed 
dry]. The usual practice is to strip off the mud and loose 
water by the sweat knife ; to walk the horse about for ten 



STABLE OPERATIONS. 99 

minutes if he be warm or wet and the weather fair, otherwise 
he stands a little in his stall or in an open shed ; then the 
man begins with the driest of those that have come in together. 
Much of the surface mud which the scraper has left about the 
legs is removed by a straw wisp, or a small birch broom, or 
the whalebone brush ; the wisp likewise helps to dry the 
horse. The whalebone brush is a very useful article when 
the coat is long. That, and the currycomb, with the aid of a 
wisp, are almost the only implements coaching-strappers re- 
quire in the winter season. It clears away the mud and 
separates the hairs, but it does not polish them. A gloss such 
as the coat of these horses requires, is given by the wisp. 
The whalebone brush is sometimes too coarse, and many 
horses can not bear it at any lime, while others can suffer it 
only in winter. After the mud has been removed with this 
brush, the matted hair parted by the currycomb, and the horse 
dusted all over with the wisp, his feet are washed, the soles 
picked, the shoes examined, the legs and heels well rubbed, 
partly by the hand and partly by the wisp, and the mane and 
tail combed. In the best of these stables he is well dressed 
with the bristle brush before he goes to work. In other 
stables the usual mode of removing the mud is by 

Washing. — When the horse is very dirty he is usually 
washed outside the stable ; his belly is scraped, and the re- 
mainder of the mud is washed off at once by the application 
of water. Some clean the body before they wash the legs ; 
but that i-s only when there is not much mud about the horse. 
They do so that he may go into the stable quite clean. He 
soils his feet and legs by stamping the ground when his body 
is being cleaned. It matters little whether the dressing com- 
mence with the body or with the legs , but when the legs are 
washed the last thing, they are generally left undried. In 
washing, a sponge and a water-brush are employed. Some 
use a mop, and this is called the lazy method : it is truly the 
trick of a careless sloven ; it wets the legs but does not clean 
them. The brush goes to the roots of the hair, and removes 
all the sand and mud, without doing which it is worse than 
useless to apply any water. The sponge is employed for 
drying the hair, for soaking up and wiping away the loose 
water. Afterward, the legs and all the parts that have been 
washed, are rendered completely dry by rubbing with the 
straw-wisp, the rubber, and the hand. Among valuable horsey 
this is always done ; wherever the legs have little hair about 



iOO STABLE ECONOMY. 

them, and that little can not be properly dried after washing, 
no washing should take place. 

Wet Le^ij;,s. — It is a very common practice, because it is 
easy, to wash the legs ; but none, save the best of stablemen, 
will be at the trouble of drying them ; they are allowed to dry 
of themselves, and they become excessively cold. Evapora- 
tion commences ; after a time a process is set up for producing 
heat sufficient to carry on evaporation, and to maintain the 
temperature of the skin. Before this process can be fully 
established, the water has all evaporated ; then the heat ac- 
cumulates ; inflammation succeeds, and often runs so far as 
to produce mortification. When the inflammation is slight 
and transient, the skin is soon completely restored to health, 
and no one knows that it had ever been inflamed. When 
the process runs higher, there is a slight oozing from the skin, 
which constitutes what is termed grease, or a spot of grease ; 
for when this disease is spread over a large surface, it is the 
result of repeated neglect. When the inflammation has been 
still more severe, mortification ensues ; the horse is lame, the 
leg swollen, and in a day or two a crack is visible across the 
pastern, generally at that part where the motion is greatest. 
This crack is sometimes a mere rupture of the tumefied skin, 
but very often it is produced by a dead portion of the skin 
having fallen out ; what is called a core in the heel arises 
from the same cause ; it differs from the crack only in being 
deeper and wider. The reason why cold produces such local 
injury of the skin covering the legs, and not of that covering 
any other part, is sufficiently plain. The legs, in proportion 
to their size, have a very extensive surface exposed to evapora 
tion, and the cold becomes more intense than it can ever be 
come on the body. To avoid these evils, the legs must eithei 
be dried after washing, or they must not be washed at all. 

Among horses that have the fetlocks and the legs well 
clothed with long and strong hair, it is not necessary to be sc 
particular about drying the legs : the length and the thickness 
of the hair check evaporation. This process is not permitted 
to go on so rapidly ; the air and the vapor are entangled among 
the hair, they can not get away, and of course can not carry 
off the heat so rapidly as from a naked heel. But for all this, 
it is possible to make the legs, even of those hairy-heeled 
horses, so cold as to produce inflammation. And when these 
horses have the legs trimmed bare, they are more liable to 
grease than the lighter horse of faster work. But the greatest 
number of patients with grease occur where the legs and heels 



STABLE OPERATIONS. 101 

are trimmed, washed, and never properly dried. TLere is no 
grease where there is good grooming, and not much where the 
legs are well covered with hair. It is true that fat or plethoric 
horses are very liable to cracks and moisture of the heels ; 
but though it may not be easy, yet it is quite possible for a 
good groom to prevent grease even in these horses. 

The proprietors of coaching-studs, a great many of them, 
find that the strappers have not time nor inclination to dry the 
legs after washing, and they prohibit the operation altogether. 
The men, nevertheless, are very fond of washing ; it is easier 
to wash the legs clean than to brush them clean ; and laziness 
is never without its plea. It is said that washing has nothing 
to do with grease or cracked heels, and that these diseases 
will occur where no washing is ever allowed. This is partly 
true, but the grease arises from the same cause ; though the 
legs are not washed, yet they are not dried when the horses 
come in with them wet ; hence the great number of cases in 
wet winters. It is also said that if the legs be wet when the 
horses come in, washing can not make them wetter : though 
the legs be wet yet they are warm, and if they must be wash- 
ed, it should be with water warm as the skin. 

I am not objecting to washing under all circumstances. It 
is a bad practice among naked-heeled horses, only when the 
men will not or can not make the legs dry. In a gentleman's 
stable the legs ought to be washed, but they ought also to be 
thoroughly dried before the horse is left. It is the evapora- 
tion, or the cold produced by evaporation, that does the mis- 
chief. In a cart-horse stable there is less chance of washing 
doing any harm ; the long hair preventing the legs from be-, 
coming very cold ; still, if grease, swelled legs, or cracked 
heels, occur often, either washing must be prohibited, or the 
legs must be dried after it, or the washing must be performed, 
at other times. In a farm-stable, the man, after working the 
horse all day, can not be expected to bestow an hour or two 
upon the legs at,night ; but he may forbear washing when he 
finds that grease is the consequence. He may brush ofi' the 
mud, when it is dry, and a wisp or a sponge will take away 
the loose water which the horse brings from his work. If 
the legs become itchy and scurfy under this treatment, they 
may be washed once or twice a- week with soapy warm wa- 
ter, well applied, by means of a brush that will reach the 
skin ; and this washing, particularly in cold weather, should 
be performed before the horse goes to his work, not after it. 
While he is in motion the legs will not become cold. The 

9* 



102 STABLE ECONOMY. 

object of such a washing is not. to clean the hair, but to clean 
the skin, which is apt to become foul and to itch from the 
mud adhering to it undisturbed. Upon drawing the hand over 
the pasterns and the legs, when in this state, numerous pim- 
ples are felt, some of which are raw. The horse is often 
stamping violently, and rubbing one leg against another. A 
solution of salt is a common and useful remedy against the 
itchiness, but it will not prevent a return. 

I am aware that, in many coaching-stables, the men are 
still permitted to wash the horse's legs, without being com- 
pelled to dry them. This is no argument in favor of wash- 
ing ; for unless the legs be well clothed with hair, they will 
always tell the same tale. The horses that have recently 
entered these studs have grease, swelled legs, and cracked 
heels ; those that have been a longer time in the service may 
be free from these, yet they show that they have had them 
over and over again. Their legs are round and fleshy; the 
skin thick, bald, seamed, callous. Nature has done much to 
inure the skin, but not before the horse has given a great 
deal of trouble, and perhaps not till he is permanently blem- 
ished. 

B at Imig. — This name may be given to the operation of 
washing the horse all over. Where possible, and not forbid- 
den by the owner, a lazy or ignorant groom always performs 
it in the neighboring river or pond. Some take the horse in- 
to the water till it is up to his belly, and others swim him in- 
to the depths, from which man and horse are often borne 
away with the stream, to the great grief of the newspaper 
editor, who deplores their melancholy fate ; by which, I sup- 
pose, he means melancholy ignorance. 

These river bathings ought to be entirely prohibited. In 
this town boys are often sent to the Clyde with horses, and 
they play themselves in the water, wading here and there, 
and up and down, till the horse is benumbed and carried off, 
or hardly able to reach the shore. Besides this risk, he is 
cooled both without and within, for he is generally permitted 
to drink at the same time. The running water removes the 
mud very effectually ; but that can be done quite as well, and 
with less dan"[er to the horse, thounh with a little more 
trouble to the keeper, in the stable-yard. There are only 
certain times in which bathing is proper, and these times are 
never observed when the men have got into the habit of go- 
ing to the river. 

In cold weather it is an act of madness. During some of 



STABLE OPERATIONS. 103 

the hottest days in summer, a_ general bathing is wonderfully 
refreshing to a horse that has run a stage at the rate of ten 
miles an hour. It cleans the skin more efTectually than any 
other means, and with less irritation to the horse ; it renders 
him comfortably cool, and, under certain conditions, it does 
him no harm. Those employed in public conveyances are 
almost the only horses that require it. During very hot 
weather they suffer much from the pace at which they travel. 
They come off the road steeped in perspiration, but in a few 
minutes they are dry. The coat is thin and short, and the 
hairs glued together by dirt and sweat ; to raise and separate 
them with the currycomb is productive of much pain, greatly 
aggravated by the fevered condition of the horse. The best 
way of cleaning a horse in this state, is by washing him. 
The operation is performed by the water-brush and the sponge. 
The horse should stand in the sun. The man, taking a large 
coarse sponge in his hand, usually commences at the neck, 
close to the head ; he proceeds backward and downward till 
he has bathed the horse all over. This may be done in two 
minutes. Then, dipping his brush in the water, he applies it 
as generally as the sponge, drawing it always in the direction 
of the hair, without any rubbing. The sponge merely applies 
the water ; the brush loosens and removes the dust and per- 
spiration which adhere to the hair. The sweat-knife is next 
employed, and the horse being scraped as dry as possible, he 
is walked about in the sun for half an hour, more or less, till 
he be perfectly dry. During the time he is in motion the 
scraper is reapplied several times, especially to the belly, 
and the horse gets water at twice or thrice. When quite dry 
he is stabled, and wisped jver, perhaps lightly brushed, to lay 
and polish his coat, and when his legs are well rubbed he is 
ready for feeding. 

To the hackney and the stage-coach horse, a bathing of 
this kind may often be given with great benefit. It improves 
the appearance of the skin, and subdues that fevered state of 
the system in which horses often remain for a long time after 
severe exertion under a burning sun. It must not be over- 
done. The horse should be washed and dried as quickly as 
possible. The object is to render him comfortably cool, not 
to freeze him. Upon cold, wet, or cloudy days, it is forbid- 
den, and after sunset it is out of the question. For slow 
working horses it is neither necessary nor proper. The ex- 
citement of th( ir work is so moderate, that the circulation 
becomes tranquil soon after the work is over. They are not 



104 STABLE ECONOMY. 

SO difficult to clean, and they are not liable to the faint, fever- 
ed condition which fast work produces in hot weather. The 
men who attend these slow horses are seldom able to bathe 
them, even though bathing were beneficial. They have not 
sufficient despatch. 

OPERATIONS OF DECORATION. 

Some of these might very well be termed expurgatory or 
deformatory operations. Many of them consist in removing 
something supposed to be superfluous or noxious, or something 
offensive to taste, which among stablemen is often sufficiently 
corrupt. To judge of their propriety or impropriety, it is 
necessary to advert briefly to 

The Uses and Properties of the Hair. — That which 
forms the general covering is intended to keep the horse 
warm. It conducts heat very slowly, and is therefore well 
adapted for retaining it. It absorbs no moisture, and when 
the horse is in good health, every hair is anointed with an 
oily sort of fluid which imparts a beautifid gloss, and repels 
moisture. 

The hair is shed every spring and every autumn. The short 
fine coat which suffices for the summer, aflbrds little protection 
against the severity of winter ; it falls and is replaced by 
another of the same material, though longer and coarser. It 
is not very obvious why the horse should moult twice every 
year. We might suppose that a mere increase in the length 
of the summer coat would render it sufficiently warm for the 
winter. Without doubt there is some reason why it is other- 
wise ordered. The hair perhaps is not of the same texture ; 
that of the winter coat certainly appears to be coarser ; it is 
thicker, and it requires more care to keep it glossy than the 
hair of a summer coat. 

The hair is not cast all at once. Before losing its connex- 
ion with the skin it assumes a lighter color, and becomes dim 
and deadlike. On some warm day a large quantity comes 
away which is not missed, though its fall is very evident. 
The process seetiis to stop for several days and to recom- 
mence. Though a little is always falling, yet there are times 
at which large quantities come out, and it is said that the 
whole is shed at thrice. Moulting, and the length and thick- 
ness of the coat, are much influenced by stable treatment and 
the weather. Horses that are much and for a long time out 
of doors, exposed to cold, always have the hair much longer 



OPERATIONS OF DECORATION. 105 

thai those kept in warm sta-bles, or those that are more in the 
stable than in the open air. If the horse be kept warm and 
well fed, his winter coat will be very little longer than that 
of summer, and it will lie nearly as well. Moulting may 
even be entirely prevented ; heavy clothing and warm stabling 
wdll keep the summer coat on all winter. The horse, how- 
ever, must not be often nor long exposed to cold, for though 
he may be made to retain his summer coat till after the usual 
period of changing it, yet it will fall even in the middle of 
winter, if he be much exposed to winter weather. Grooms 
often hasten the fall of the winter coat by extra dressing and 
clothing, in order that the horse may have his fine summer 
coat a little earlier than usual. This, especially when the 
spring is cold and the horse much exposed, is not right, for 
it generally makes the summer coat longer than if it had not 
appeared till the weather was warmer. 

The long hair which grows on the legs of some horses is 
doubtless intended to answer the same purpose as the short 
hair of the body. It is longer and stronger, because the parts 
are more exposed to cold and to wet. It is always longest in 
horses that are reared in damp or marshy situations, where 
the grass is luxuriant, and the soil charged with moisture. 
Such pastures are necessary for the large draught-horse, who 
consumes much food, more than the light racing-horse, to 
whom the scanty herbage of a dryer situation is sufficient. 
But, independent of this, length of hair upon the legs is pe- 
culiar to particular breeds. It is always long in draught- 
horses and Highland ponies, and short in blood-horses wher- 
ever they are reared. On the legs of thorough-bred horses, 
the hair is not much longer than that on the body, with the 
exception of a tuft at the back of the fetlock-joint. This is 
termed the foot-lock. It defends the parts beneath from ex- 
ternal injury, to which they are liable by contact with the 
ground. When very long, good grooming, good food, and 
warm stabling, always shorten the hair of the legs. 

The hair of the mane has been regarded as ornamental, and 
it is so ; but to say that any part of an animal was conferred 
for the sole purpose of pleasing the eye of man, is almost as 
much as to say that all were not created by the same Being. 
Had the mane been superfluous to the horse, we could have 
been made to admire him without it. God has made it pleas- 
ing to us, because it is useful to him. In a wild state the 
horse has many battles to fight, and his neck, deprived of the 
mane, wonld be a very vulnerable part. It is likewise a part 



106 STABLE ECONOMY. 

that he can not reach with his teeth, and not easily with his 
feet. The flies might settle there and satiate themselves 
without disturbance : if the mane can not altogether exclude 
those intruders, it can lash them off by a single jerk of the 
head. I believe that in wild horses the mane falls equally on 
both sides of the neck. 

The long hair of the mane, the tail, and the legs, is not 
shed in the same manner as that on the body. It is decidu- 
ous, but it does not fall so regularly, so rapidly, nor so often 
as the other. Each hair, from its length, requires a much 
longer time to grow ; if all were shed at once, the parts 
would be left defenceless for perhaps- more than a month. 
Some of the hairs are constantly losing their attachment and 
falling out, while others are as constantly growing. It is not 
possible to say what determines the fall of these hairs in 
horses not domesticated. It may be some circumstance con- 
nected with their age or length more than with the change ot 
season. When brushed and combed many of them are pulled 
out. 

Docking. — In this country the horse's tail is regarded as 
a useless or troublesome appendage. It was given to ward 
oflf the attacks of blood-sucking flies. But men choose to 
remove it without being able to give the horse any other pro- 
tection from the insects against which it was intended to 
operate. They say that the long tail conceals the horse's 
quarters, diminishes his apparent height, heats him at fast 
work, and soils his rider. It is also supposed that amputa- 
tion of the tail renders the back stronger. These sage say- 
ings have been promulgated so extensively from one to an- 
other, that it seems to be universally decided that all horses 
must be docked. 

These, it will be observed, are very strong objections to a 
long tail. It is a terrible thing to hide the quarters, and to 
make the horse look lower by an inch than he really is. 
Evils of such a nature are not to be suff'ered. The tail may 
be very useful in some respects, and in the good old times it 
was permitted to flourish as it grew, being only bound up 
when it troubled the horse's rider. But in times like these, 
when men clamor for freedom, and practise tyranny, it must 
be cut off". 

It is said that the back becomes stronger after the tail is 
docked ; that the back receives the blood which formerly went 
to the tail. There is no truth in this. The small quantity 
of blood which is saved can be furnished by one or two ad- 



OPERATIONS OF DECORATION. 107 

ditional ounces of grain, and there is not the slightest proof 
that the back becomes stronger. 

Some writers have contended that the tail of the horse, like 
that of the greyhound or the kangaroo, assists him in turning, 
in the same way that a helm guides a ship. If this be so, as 
its action when the horse is running would seem to indicate, 
cavalry horses and racers, more than others, must lose a great 
deal of power by docking But whether this be true or not, 
there can be no doubt about the utility of the tail in keeping 
off flies, which to some horses give extreme torment. I have 
heard or read of a troop of cavalry employed, I think in some, 
part of India, that was quite useless in consequence of the 
annoyance the docked horses received from a large species 
of fly. In this country, for two months of the year, thin- 
skinned horses suffer excessively, and many accidents hap- 
pen from their struggles or their fears. At grass they are in 
a constant fever. 

It is surely worth while inquiring, whether all that is 
gained by docking balances the loss. In comparing the two 
it ought to be remembered that lockjaw and death are not 
rare results of the operation. 

Docking is usually performed by the veterinarian, or the 
shoeing-smith, who keeps instruments for the purpose. In 
some places it is performed when the colt is only two or 
three months old. At such an early age, a knife will remove 
the tail, and the bleeding stops of itself. By docking early 
there is less risk, and the hair grows more strongly upon the 
remaining part of the tail than when the operation is delayed 
to a later period. 

Nicking. — In England and Scotland this operation ap- 
pears to be fast and justly getting into disrepute. It is still 
very common in all parts of Ireland. Its object is to make 
the horse carry his tail well elevated. Two or three deep 
incisions are made on the lower surface of the tail ; the mus- 
cles by which it is depressed are divided, and a portion of 
them excised. The wounds are kept open for several days, 
and the tail is kept in elevation by means of pulleys and a 
weight. It is a surgical operation, but no respectable veter- 
inarian would recommend it. It need not be described here. 
On the continent, a tail thus mutilated is termed Queue 
a VAnglaisc, in compliment, I suppose, to the English. 

There is a safer and more humane method of obtaining the 
pame object. (See Fig. 8.) If the horse do not carry his 



'08 



STABLE ECONOMY. 
Fig. 13. 




tail to his rider's satisfaction, it may be put in the pulley^ ai. 
hour or two every day for several successive weeks. 

A cord is stretched across the stall, near or between the 
heel-posts ; the hair of the tail is plaited and attached to 
another cord, which passes upward over a pulley in the 
transverse line, stretches backward, where it passes through 
another pulley and descends. To this a weight is secured, a 
bag containing sand or shot sufficient to keep the tail at the 
proper elevation. A double pulley on the cross cord permits 
the horse to move from side to side without twisting the tail. 
The weight should vary with the strength of the tail. From 
one to two pounds is sufficient to begin with. After a few days 
it may be gradually increased, so as to keep the tail a little more 
elevated than the horse is wanted to carry it. The time which 
he stands in the pulleys need not in the first week exceed 
one hour ; on the second week he may stand thus for two or 
three hours every day, and at last he may be kept up all day 
or all night, if the horse be at work during the day. Should 
the tail become hot or tender, or should the hair show any 
tendency to fall out, the elevating process must be omitted for 
a day or two till the tail be well again, when it may be re- 
sumed and carried on every day, unless the hair again become 
loose, which is a sign that the weight is too great or too long 
continued. 



OPERATIONS OF DECORATION. 109 

From this operation there is no danger of the horse dying 
of lockjaw, nor of the tail being set awry, nor broken, as 
sometimes happens after nicking. It requires a much longer 
period to efiect the elevation, but that is of no consequence, 
since the horse need not be a single day off work. When 
nicked he must be idle for several weeks. 

[The operation of nicking^ or more properly pricking, as 
given by our author, is barbarous in the extreme. As prac- 
tised in America, it is much more simple, effectual, and less 
painful. If the tail is to be docked, let that first be done, and 
then permitted to heal perfectly. Perhaps this operation may 
make the horse carry his tail so well as to prevent the neces- 
sity of pricking. But if it does not, then let him be pricked. 

Operation. — The tail has four cords, two upper and two 
lower. The upper ones raise the tail, the lower ones de- 
press it, and these last alone are to be cut. Take a sharp 
penkifife with a long slender blade; insert the blade between 
the bone and under cord, two inches from the body; place the 
thumb of the hand holding the knife against the under part of 
the tail, and opposite the blade. Then press the blade 
toward the thumb against the cord, and cut the cord off, but 
do not let the knife cut through the skin. The cord is firm 
and it will easily be known when it is cut off. The thumb 
will tell when to desist, that the skin may not be cut. Sever 
the cord tv^^ice on each side in the same manner. Let the 
cuts be two inches apart. The cord is nearly destitute of 
sensation ; yet Avhen the tail is pricked in the old manner, 
the wound to the skin and flesh is severe, and much fever is 
induced, and it takes a long time to heal. But with this 
method, the horse's tail will not bleed, nor will it be sore 
under ordinary circumstances more than three days ; and he 
will be pulleyed and his tail made in one half of the time 
required by the old method.] 

• Dressing tpie Tail. — Sometimes the hair of the tail grows 
too bushy. The best way of thinning it is to comb it often 
with a dry comb, having small but strong teeth. When the 
hair is short, stiff, almost standing on end, it may be laid by 
^vetting it, and tying the ends together beyond the stump. 
Sometimes the whole tail is moistened, and surrounded by a 
hay-rope, which is applied evenly and moderately tight, and 
kept on all night. It makes the hair lie better during the 
next day, but seldom longer. Square tails require occasional 
clipping. The tail is held in a horizontal position by the 
left hand, while it is squared with scissors. The hair at the 

10 



110 STABLE ECONOMY. 

centre is rendered shorter than that at the outside, and thf 
tail, when elevated, resembles the feathered extremity of a 
pen. Horses of the racing kind haA^e long tails with the 
points of the hair cut off. 

A switch tail is taper at the point, not square. It is of 
varying length, according to the taste of the rider. It some- 
times requires to be shortened without squaring it. The man 
seizes it within his left hand, cuts off the superfluous length 
with a knife not very sharp. He does not go slap-dash 
through it as a pair of scissors would ; but, holding the knife 
across, with the edge inclined to the point of the tail, he 
draws it up and down as if he, were scraping it ; the hairs 
are cut as the knife approaches the hand that holds the tail ; 
in this way he carries the knife all round, and reaches the 
central hairs as much from one point of the outer circumfer- 
ence as from any other. The hairs are thus left of unequal 
length, those at the middle being the longest. 

The hair of the tail is usually combed and brushed every 
day, and when not hanging gracefully, it should be wet and 
combed four or five times a day. White tails, especially 
when of full length, require often to be washed with soap and 
water. On many horses the hair is very thin. When the 
hair is wanted exuberant, it should have little combing ; in 
the studs of equestrian actors, the comb is never, or it is very 
little used. When applied to separate the hairs, care is taken 
not to pull them out. The operator seizes the hair near the 
root with his left hand, while the right uses the comb, which 
in this way is not permitted to act on the roots. At other 
times the water-brush, a little moistened, keeps the hair 
Siiiooth and clean. 

Formerly, many years ago, it was the custom to dye the 
tail and often the mane. Red was a favorite color. Nothing 
of that kind is done now, and the process need not be de- 
scribed. Both mane and tail used to be preserved in a bag 
when the horse was not at work. 

Dressing the Mane. — In general the mane lies to the 
right side, but in some horses it is shaded equally to each. 
On some carriage horses it is made to lie to the right side on 
the one, and to the left on the other, the bare side of the neck 
being exposed. From some, especially ponies, it is the cus- 
tom to have the mane shorn off near to the roots, only a few 
stumps being left to stand perpendicularly. This is termed 
the hog-mane. It is almost entirely out of fashion. To 
make a mane lie, the groom combs and wets it several times 



OPERATIONS OF DECORATION. Ill 

a day , he keeps it almost constantly wet ; when thick, short, 
and bushy, he pulls away some of the hair from the under 
side, that is, from the side to which the mane inclines, or is 
wanted to incline. When that is not sufficient, he plaits it 
into ten or fifteen cords, weaving into each a piece of mat- 
ting, and loading the extremity with a little lead. After re- 
maining in this state for several days, the plaiting is undone, 
and the mane lies as it is wanted. When it becomes too 
long or too bushy, a few of the hairs are pulled out. This 
is often done too harshly, and some horses have a great 
aA^ersion to it. The man takes hold of a few hairs, often too 
many ; he clears them by pushing up the others, wraps them 
round his finger, and with a sudden jerk tears them out. Mr. 
Blane contrived a kind of fork with three prongs made of iron, 
which is said to thin the mane more equally and less painfully 
than the finger. In harness-horses, that part of the mane 
which lies directly behind the ears is usually cut away, that 
the head of the bridle may sit fast. 

Heavy draught-horses should seldom have either the mane 
or the tail thinned, and, to hang gracefully, it should be long 
in proportion to its thickness. These horses have a naked, 
stiff, and clumsy appearance when deprived of too much hair. 
Indeed, their mane and tail require nothing but daily comb- 
ing and brushing to keep them clean and even. A thinner 
mane and tail are more in keeping with the general appear- 
ance of fine-boned, well-bred horses. 

In stage-coach and similar stables, the horses are often 
robbed of both mane and tail by drunken strappers. For the 
sake of a dram, which they gain by selling the hair, they 
pull out more than enough. This should be forbidden. 

Trimming the Ears. — The inside of the ear is coated 
with fine hair, which is intended by nature to exclude rain, 
flies, dirt, and other foreign matters floating in the air. When 
left to itself, it grows so long as to protrude considerably out 
of the ear, and to give the horse a neglected, ungroomed-like 
appearance. It is a common practice to trim all this hair 
away by the roots. But it is a very stupid practice. The 
internal ear becomes exposed to the intrusion of rain, dirt, 
and insects ; and though I know of no disease arising from 
this cause, yet every horseman is aware that it gives the 
horse much annoyance. Many are very unwilling to face 
a blast of rain or sleet, and some will not. In the fly- 
season, they are constantly throwing the head about as if 
they would throw it off, and this is an inconvenience to 



112 STABLE ECONOMY. 

either rider or driver. The hair on the inside should not be 
cut from any horse. It is easily cleaned by a gentle applica- 
tion of the brush. When the hair grows too long, the points 
may be taken off. This is done by closing the ear, and cut- 
ting away the hair that protrudes beyond the edges. Among 
heavy horses even this is unnecessary. 

Cropping the Ears used at one time to be almost as com- 
mon as docking is now. But the operation is so entirely 
abandoned, that no one now speaks of it. 

Trimming the Muzzle and Face. — All round the muzzle, 
and especially about the nostrils and lips, there are long fine 
hairs, scattered wide apart, and standing perpendicular to the 
skin. These are feelers. They perform the same functions 
as the whiskers of the cat. Their roots are endowed with 
peculiar sensibility. They warn the horse of the vicinity of 
objects to which he must attend. There are several grouped 
together below and above the eyes, which give these delicate 
organs notice of approaching insects or matters that might 
enter them and do mischief. The slightest touch on the ex- 
tremity of these hairs is instantly felt by the horse. They 
detect even the agitation of the air. 

It is usual with grooms to cut all these hairs away as vulgar 
excrescences. They can give no reason for doing so. They 
see these hairs on all horses that are not well groomed, and 
perhaps they are accustomed to associate them with general 
want of grooming. They are so fine and so few in number, 
that they can not be seen from a little distance, and surely 
they can not be regarded as incompatible with beauty, even 
though they were more conspicuous. 

The operation ought to be forbidden ; few horses suffer it 
without some resistance, and many have to be restrained by 
the twitch. The pain is not great, but it seems to be suf- 
ficiently annoying. 

The long hair which grows upon the throat channel and 
neck of horses that have been much exposed to cold, is partly 
pulle'i out and partly shortened. It has been supposed that 
the removal of the hair from about the throat renders the horse 
very liable to catch cold after it, and to have a cough. It is 
sometimes shoi-tened by chpping, but oftener by singeing it, 
and singeing is blamed more than clipping. The operation 
certainly does not improve the appearance of heavy draught- 
horses ; it is never required by blood horses, or others that 
are well groomed and comfortably stabled ; and saddle, gig, or 
post-horses, to whom the operation might bean improveraent| 



OPERATIONS OF DECORATION. 113 

are so seldom in the charge of men who can perform it proper- 
ly, that in general it is better to leave it undone. 

Trimming THE Heels and Legs.* — The hair of the fetlock, 
the hollow of the pastern, and the posterior aspect of the legs, 
is longer on heavy draught-horses than on those of finer bone. 
It is intended to keep the legs warm, and perhaps in some 
degree to defend them from external violence. It becomes 
much shorter and less abundant after the horse is stabled, kept 
warm, well fed, and well groomed. The simple act of wash- 
ing the legs, or rubbing them, tends to make the hair short and 
thin, and to keep it so. Nevertheless, it is a very common 
practice, especially in coaching-stables, to clip this hair away 
almost close to the root. Cart-horses very rarely have the 
heels trimmed ; well-bred horses seldom require it. The 
hand-rubbing Avhich the legs and heels of these horses re- 
ceive, keeps the hair short, and it is never very long even 
without hand-rubbing. 

The heels are trimmed in three different ways : the most 
common and the easiest is to clip away all the long hair, near 
or close to the roots ; another way is to switch the heels, that 
is, to shorten the hair without leaving any mark of the scissors 
— the groom seizes the hair and cuts off a certain portion in 
the same manner that he shortens a switch tail ; the third 
mode is to pull the long hairs out by the roots. Switching 
and pulling, which is little practised, are generally confined to 
the foot-lock ; some neat operators combine these different 
modes so well, that the hair is rendered thin and short without 
presenting any very visible marks of the alteration. By means 
of an iron comb with small teeth and a pair of good scissors, 
the hair may be shortened without setting it on end or leaving 
scissor marks, but every groom can not do this. 

There has been considerable difference of opinion as to the 
propriety of trimming the heels. Some contend that the long 
hair soaks up the moisture, keeps the skin long wet and cold, 
producing grease, sores, cracks, and scurfiness ; by others 
this is denied ; they affirm that the long hair, far from favor- 
ing the production of these evils, has a tendency to prevent 
them. But there is another circumstance to be taken into 
consideration, and that accounts sufficiently for the difference 
of opinion. 

When the horse is carefully tended after his work is over, 
his legs quickly and completely dried, the less hair he has 

* The word heel is applied to the back and hollow of the pastern. In this 
place, all that is said of the heels is applicable to the legs. 

10* 



114 STABLE ECONOMY. 

about tliem the better. The moisture which that little take* 
up can be easily removed : both the skin and the hair can be 
made perfectly dry before evaporation begins, or proceeds so 
far as to deprive the legs of their heat. It is the cold -pro- 
duced by evaporation that does all the mischief; and if there 
be no moisture to create evaporation, there can be no cold — 
no loss of heat, save that which is taken away by the air. If 
there were more hair about the heels, they could not be so 
soon nor so easily dried. If the man requires ten minutes to 
dry one leg, the last will have ;thirty minutes to cool ; if he 
can dry each in two minutes, the last will have only six minutes 
to cool, and in that time it can not become so cold as to be 
liable to grease. Whenever, therefore, the legs must be dried 
by manual labor, they should have little hair about them. 

But in coaching and posting-studs, and among cart-horses, 
the men can not, or will not bestow this care upon the legs ; 
they have not time, and they would not do it if they had time. 
A team of four horses, perhaps, comes in at once, the legs all 
wet, and, it may be, the whole skin drenched in rain. Before 
eight of the legs can be rubbed dry, the other eight have be- 
come almost dry of themselves, and are nearly as cold as they 
can be. These horses should never have the heels trimmed: 
they can not have too much hair about them. They do indeed 
soak up a great deal of water, and remain wet for a much 
longer time than those that are nearly naked ; but still they 
never become so soon nor so intensely cold. Evaporation 
can not proceed so rapidly ; the vapor is entangled among the 
hair, and can not escape all at once. The evaporatmg process 
proceeds for a long time, but so slowly that the skin has time 
to furnish the necessary quantity of heat before it becomes 
very cold. If these horses had naked heels, there would be 
little difficulty in drying them ; but the little trouble it requires 
is too much, and then it must be repeated as the water trickles 
from the .body downward, making the legs as wet as ever; but 
in truth the men can not get them all dried before some be- 
come cold. 

Possibly this explanation may be considered as insufficient. 
I can appeal to observation. During two very wet winters I 
have paid particular attention to the subject. My. practice 
has brought it before me whether I would or not ; I have had 
opportunity of observing the results of trimming and of no- 
trimmiag, among upward of five hundred horses. Nearly 
three hundred of these are employed at coaching and posting, 
or work of a similar kind, and about one hundred and fifty are 



OPERATIONS OF DECORATION. 115 

cart-horses. Grease, and the other skin diseases of the heels, 
have been of most frequent occurrence where the horses were 
both trimmed and washed ; they have been common where 
the horses were trimmed but not washed ; and there have 
been very few cases where washing and trimming were for- 
bidden or neglected. I do not include horses that always 
have the best of grooming ; they naturally have little hair 
about the legs, and some of that is often removed ; their legs 
are always washed after work, but they are always dried he- 
fore they have time to cool. 

If, then, the horse have to work often and long upon wet or 
muddy roads, and can not have his legs completely dried im- 
mediately after work, and kept dry in the stable, and not ex- 
posed to any current of cold air, he must not have his heels 
trimmed. In most well-regulated coaching stables, this opera- 
tion and washing are both forbidden. 

Hand-rubbing the Legs. — This is not altogether an 
ornamental operation, but as it is performed chiefly or only 
where decoration is attended to, this seems to be the proper 
place for taking notice of it. I have said that the hair of the 
body is anointed by an oily kind of matter, which serves in 
some measure to repel the rain. The long hair of the heels is 
anointed in the same way, but these parts are more liable to be- 
come wet, and the oily or lubricating fluid is secreted in greater 
abundance here than elsewhere. It is produced by the skin, 
and has a slightly fetid smell, which becomes intolerable when 
the skin is the seat of the disease termed grease. This fluid 
is easily washed oflf, but it is soon replaced ; the greater part 
of it is removed by brushing and washing the hair, especially 
with soapy water, and it is some time ere the hair and skin 
are again bedewed with it. Dry friction with the hand or a 
soft wisp stimulates the skin to furnish a new or an extri* 
supply. This is one good reason for hand-rubbing, an opera- 
tion seldom performed by untrained grooms. " Take care of 
the heels, and the other parts will take care of themselves,'* 
is an old saying in the stable, and a very good one, if it mean 
only that the heels require more care than other parts. In 
some horses, particularly those that have little hair about the 
legs, the hollow of the pastern is very apt to crack ; the 
anointing fluid is not secreted in sufficient quantity to keep 
the skin supple ; it is always dry, and whenever the animal is 
put to a fast pace, the skin cracks and bleeds at the place 
where motion is greatest. Lotions are applied which dry the 
80 :e, but do not prevent the evil from recurring ; hand-rubbing 



116 STABLE ECONOMY. 

must do this. The legs of some horses are apt to smell or to 
itch, particularly when they stand idle for a day or two. 
Others, cold-blooded, long-legged horses, are troubled with 
cold legs while standing in the stall. These things are 
generally disregarded among coarse horses ; if they disappear, 
it is well, if not, they are neglected till they become more 
formidable. But little evils of this kind often produce much 
annoyance to those who own horses of greater value. It is 
difficult to avoid them altogether among horses that are not in 
good condition, loaded with fat, or plethoric ; yet, frequer.t 
hand-rubbing does much. Some grooms give it five or six 
times a-day ; so much is seldom required, indeed never, ex- 
cept under disease : but it does no harm that I know of, if it 
do not make the heels too bare. To be of any use, it must 
be done in a systematic manner and in good earnest. If the 
horse be perfectly quiet, the man will sit down on his knees, 
and, with a small soft wisp, or cloth-rubber in each hand, he 
will rub upward and downward, or he will use his hands 
without the wisp, particularly if the hair be fine and short ; 
much force is not necessary, indeed it is pernicious. In 
coming down the leg, the pressure should be light ; and in 
passing upward, it must not be so great as to raise or break 
the hairs. 

Many stablemen perform this simple operation always in 
the same way ; they pass over the leg as if they merely meant 
to smooth or lay the hair. To polish the hair, if that be all 
which is required, this is sufficient. But to stimulate the 
skin, to clean it, to disperse gourdiness, and to excite the 
secretion by which the hair is anointed, there must be some 
fric+ion, some rubbing against or across the hair, as well as 
along It ; the hollow of the pastern has most need of this, and 
there the rubbing should be across the hair, with the palm of 
the hand. When the legs are cold, as they generally are in 
inflammatory diseases of internal organs, it is usual to raise 
some degree of heat in them by hand-rubbing. For effecting 
this the friction must be considerable. The hands, one on 
each side of the leg, must pass rapidly upward and downward, 
and with a moderate degree of pressure. When necessary to 
do this, the hair is broken, rubbed out, or raised into curls, 
but in such cases this must in general be disregarded ; at other 
times the friction need not be so great, and should not. 

After a day of severe and protracted exertion, gentle and 
frequent friction is very useful for restoring the legs, and for 
preventing the cold swelling to which the legs of many horses 



OPERATIONS OF DECORATION, 117 

are liable after work, but it is improper where there is any 
swelling hot and painful. The hind always requires more 
than the fore legs. The friction seldom requires to be c^v- 
ried higher than the hock or knee-joints. 

Singeing. — Stablemen have long been in the nabit of 
singeing away the long loose hair which grows about the 
jaws, throat, neck, belly, and quarters of horses that have 
been much exposed to cold ; a flame is applied and the hair 
is allowed to blaze for a moment, when it is extinguished by 
drawing the hand or a damp cloth over it. Sometimes the 
hair is moistened a little with spirits of whie, in order that it 
may burn more readily ; the spirit is not rubbed in, it is enough 
to moisten the points of the hair ; when too wet it lies too 
smoothly for singeing. Sometimes the horse is singed all 
over ; the operation is common, I believe, in England and 
Ireland. There are instruments for the purpose. An article 
composed of two iron rollers, the one being hot and the other 
cold, was at one time in use. But singeing is now done by 
a kind of knife, having a moveable back, which is surrounded 
with tow moistened with spirit of wine and set on fire. As 
the knife is drawn over the hairs, their points start and are 
taken oif by the flame. When properly performed, this op- 
eration does not disfigure the horse so much as might be ex- 
pected. He does not look so ill as a clipped horse, and his 
hair is never so generally shortened. 

Shaving. — I have heard of horses being shaved. It has 
been done to make the horse wear a summer coat in winter. 
The operation is rare and difiScult ; it is performed after the 
horse has moulted, and before the winter coat is full grown. 
I am unable to say whether it be right or wrong, for I have 
never seen it performed, and am ignorant of its results. 

Clipping. — This operation has been truly termed, " a bad 
substitute for good grooming." 'I is done only on the better 
kinds of horses, especially upon hunters, and consists i/i 
shjortening the hair all over the body, by means of the scis- 
sors and comb. The object is to make the winter coat as 
short as that of summer. The time usually chosen is the be- 
ginning of winter, just after the horse has moulted, and before 
his coat has attained its full length ; but it may be done at 
any later period, greater care being taken to prevent the 
horse catching cold. Of the mode in which the operation is 
performed, I need say nothing. There are persons in all 
considerable towns who make it their business. Private 
grooms sometimes attempt it ; but they seldom do it neatly. 



118 STABLE ECONOMY. 

The horse requires no preparation. For several days after, 
he must be well clothed both in the stable and at exercise. 
He may be ridden the next day, but he must not be exposed 
while naked, wet, or motionless. He should not be clipped 
when unwell. If he have any cough, sore throat, discharge 
from the nose, or tendency to shiver after drinking, these 
should be removed before he is clipped. He should not have 
any physic immediately before nor after. When he goes to 
the forge or to exercise after the operation, he should be well 
clothed. A double blanket, a hood, and breast-piece, are 
requisite. 

Utility of Clipping. — Some people dislike the appearance 
of a clipped horse ; and it must be confessed that while some 
are improved by the operation, others look very ill. Never- 
theless, it is to please the eye that clipping is performed. So 
long as nothing was said against the practice, it had no higher 
pretensions. They that first tried it had no other object. 
They did not expect it to exercise any influence upon the 
comfort or health of the horse, and they did not recommend it 
as contributing to either the one or the other. But at a later 
period — that is, after the operation had been patronised by 
those whom it would be sinful not to imitate, attempts were 
made to show that clipping did something more than to please 
the eye. It was urged, and with perfect truth, that it dimin- 
ishes the labor of the groom, and prevents the horse from 
sweating in the stable. As if this were not sufficient, other 
arguments were brought forward in iavor of clipping. It was 
said that the horse becomes lighter by a pound, about the 
weight of the hair he loses ; that the stomach, L;)wels, liver, 
and lungs, derive some benefit from the extra dressing which 
the skin obtains, in consequence of being more easily reached 
by the brush, and that the horse perspires less at his work. 

Much of what I have said upon trimming is applicable to 
clipping. If the owner can not suffer a long coat of hair, and 
will have it shortened, he must never allow the horse to be 
motionless while he is wet, or exposed to a cold blast. He 
must have a good groom and a good stable. Those who 
have both, seldom have a horse that requires clipping, but 
when clipped, he must not want either. A long coat takes 
up a deal of moisture, and is difficult to dry ; but whether 
wet or dry, it affords some defence to the skin, which is lai6 
bare to every breath of air when deprived of its natural cov* 
ering. Every one must know from himself whether we» 
clothing and a wet skin, or no clothing and a wet skin, is th* 



OPERATIONS OF DECORATION 119 

most disagreeable and dangerous. It is true that clipping 
saves the groom a great deal of labor. He can dry the horse 
in half the time, and with less than half of the exertion 
which a long coat requires ; but it makes his attention and 
activity more necessary, for the horse is almost sure to catch 
cold, if not dried immediately. When well clothed with hair, 
he is in less danger, and not so much dependant upon the 
care of his groom.* 

Objections to Clipping. — Some, as I have just observed, 
dislike the look of a clipped horse. This is no objection to 
the operation. As a matter of taste, it is needless to say any- 
thing either for or against it. There are no arguments for 
persuading men to admire that which oflends the eye. The 
clipped horse has a different color ; the hair is lighter ; a 
black becomes a rusty brown ; the hair stares, stands on end, 
and is never, or very seldom, glossy. But the only real ob- 
jections to clipping are these: it costs two guineas, or there- 
abouts ; it renders the horse very liable to catch cold ; and it 
exposes the skin so much, that he is apt to refuse a rough 
fence in fear of thorns. There is not the slightest reason for 
supposing — as has been supposed — that it produces blindness, 
or has any tendency to shorten the duration of life. The 
cost of the operation, and the additional care which the horse 
requires, are, I believe, the principal objections ; and consid- 
ering how little is gained, they will probably prevent the op- 
eration from ever becoming very general.' There are some 
horses which wear a long rough coat all the year. The 
groom, with all his care and the best of stables, can not keep 
it within reasonable bounds. For these horses, if a long 
coat is a great eye-sore, there is no remedy save clipping. 
But there are very many horses clipped, to whom the opera- 
tion would be quite unnecessary, were they better groomed 
and well stabled. Since a fine coat is an object of so much 
importance, it is well to know by what means it may be ob- 
tained. When these are more generally known there will be 
less clipping. 

To give the horse a fine coat all at once, is not possible un- 
der any system of management. With horses that have been 
previously exposed to the weather, it may be the work of six 
months, and very often the horse must be two winters in the 
stable before he becomes creditable to his groom. Comforta- 
ble stabling of itself exercises considerable influence upon 

* [For an excellent article on clipping horses in England, unsound feet* 
&c., see American Agriculturist, vol. iii., page 78.] 



120 STABLE ECONOMY. 

the coat ; but horses that have been reared in cold situations 
may often be two winters in the stable before their coat is 
very decidedly altered. The hair becomes liner and shorter, 
and the principal agent in effecting this change is heat. To 
produce and preserve a fine silken coat, it is absolutely ne- 
cessary that the horse be kept warm. The stable must be 
comfortable, and the clothing must be heavy. Good groom- 
ing and good food, in liberal allowance, are the next agents. 
When these three are combined, the coat gradually becomes 
so fine, and lies so smoothly, that clipping can never be de- 
sired, and indeed it is hardly possible to perform the opera- 
tion upon such a coat. These agents operate slowly. They 
very soon make a rough coat smooth, and a dull coat glossy ; 
6ut they can not shorten the hair. If they are to make the 
winter coat shorty they must be in operation before, and at 
the time of moulting. On many horses they do not produce 
their full effect till the second winter ; but, in the most of 
cases, a thorough-bred groom will make the horse tolerably 
decent, for the first winter, if he get him in autumn, a fort- 
night before moulting. 

There are other agents which may co-operate with these, 
when they do not produce their ordinary effects. Boiled bar- 
ley, boiled or raw linseed, raw carrots, and boiled turnips, are 
among the articles of food which influence the skin. They 
polish and lay the hair, and they soften the skin. These 
need not be given constantly. It is sufficient to give one or 
more of them two or three times in the week. A few raw 
carrots during the day, and perhaps a little barley at night, 
will answer the purpose, and occasionally these may give 
place to turnips and linseed. 

Drugs are sometimes given, and when not abused, they are 
useful. Physic is serviceable only when the skin is too rigid, 
and the dung pale, or when there is reason to suspect worms. 
When the horse does not eat up his grain, a mild dose of 
physic may be given, and when that sets, it may be followed 
by a few cordials, one being given every second or third day. 
Cordials are rarely required in warm weather [indeed they 
are frequently highly injurious, and should only be administered 
for debility]. Physic alone in general succeeds. When 
there is no apparent need either for physic or cordials, the 
coat not improving so much nor so rapidly^as it should do, 
the best remedy is a powder composed of antimony, nitre, 
and sulphur. Take black antimony, eight ounces ; flour of 
^Ajlphur, four ounces ; and finely-powdered nitre, four ounces 



OPERATIONS OF DECORATION. 121 

Mix these well together ; divide the whole into sixteen doses, 
and give one every night in the last feed. If the weather be 
moderately warm and dry, or the horse not much exposed, he 
may, on every second night, have two doses, or he may have 
one at morning, and another at night — tliat is, two every day. 
At the end of ten or twelve days, the coat ought to be much 
improved, and by the time all the doses have been given, the 
antimony will be glittering on the skin. If the horse have to 
stand any time out of doors during cold weather, these pow- 
ders must not be given. They render him very sensitive of 
vicissitudes of temperature ; and they are apt to make him 
sweat a little in the stable ; but this is a matter of little con- 
sequence. The night-sweats will disappear as the horse gets 
into condition. 

Besides the physic, the cordials, and the diaphoretic pow- 
der, some grooms are in the habit of giving other things. It 
is a common practice to force whole eggs raw down the 
throat. The shell is starred, so that it may be crushed as the 
horse swallows the egg ; but sometimes this is not done suf- 
ficiently, the egg sticks in the gullet, and chokes the horse. 
He dies in two or three minutes, if he do not obtain immedi- 
ate assistance. I do not believe that eggs, either raw or boiled, 
have any or much influence on the coat. If it be certain that 
they have, they can be given in the food without danger. 
Break them into dry bran, and give that after fasting. Lin- 
seed oil is not a bad thing. If the owner fancies it, he may 
give a quart bottle, instead of the ordinary physic-ball. It is 
most useful when the skin is rigid, sticking to the ribs. Of 
tobacco, mercury, and several mineral preparations, which are 
occasionally given to fine the coat, I can give no account. I 
have had no experience of them. The means I have already 
recommended seldom fail, and I have never tried any others. 
[Mercury and most mineral preparations, we know, from sad 
experience, are extremely injurious. We have had several 
horses nearly ruined by them ; and as other medicines are 
equally effective, and less dangerous, minerals should be 
rarely prescribed.] 

Drugs are often employed to give a fine coat when there is 
no need for them. When warmth, good grooming, and good 
food, or particular kinds of food, will produce the desired 
effect, drugs should not be used. A lazy man is always fond 
of those expedients which save his labor. He is apt to make 
the warmth and drugs do that which should be done with the 
brush. Instead of dressing the horse frequently and thorough- 

11 



122 STABLE ECONOMY. 

ly, he increases the warmth of the stable and the weight of 
the clothing, till the horse is almost fevered ; and he gives 
drugs, so many and so often, {hat he renders .he constitution 
exceedingly delicate. Such rrteans are not ahvays injurious ; 
but in many cases they are made to do too much. They are 
very serviceable in their proper place ; they are not to do 
that which should be done by grooming. 

The gloss of a fine coat is easily destroyed, particularly 
that gloss which is given by warmth and antimony. Ex- 
posure to cold, frequent ablutions, extraordinary exertion, and 
everything that checks the insensible perspiration, or inter- 
feres with the daily dressing, produce a change upon the 
hair. In a single day it will become dull, hard, dead-like, 
and staring. Gentle exercise to heat the skin, and hard rub- 
bing with the brush, will generally restore the lost polish and 
smoothness of the hair ; and sometimes one of the diaphoretic 
powders may be given before and after the day of sweating, 
which must be very gentle. 

All slow-working horses, and those that have to bear much 
exposure to the weather, and especially those that have to 
stand out of doors, or in cold stables, should not have a short 
coat ; good grooming and food will make it glossy ; a 
single rug will make it lie ; but drugs, and a high degree of 
warmth, are forbidden. They render the horse unfit for cold 
stables, and unfit to suffer, without injury, that exposure which 
his work demands. 

MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET. 

The feet of some horses require particular attention. They 
are liable to injuries and to diseases, of which one or two 
may be prevented by a little care. 

Picking the Feet is among the first things a good stable 
man attends to when the horse comes off" his work. Ver) 
often a stone is wedged between the shoe and the frog ; if 
permitted to remain there till next day, or even for a few 
hours, the foot may be bruised, and the horse lamed. This 
seldom happens to the hind feet. But both the fore and the 
hind feet of all horses should be examined after work, to seo 
that no stone, nail, splinter of wood, nor broken glass, be 
sticking in the sole. The mud and clay may be picked out 
or washed away, and the feet examined in aboui three min- 
utes, and this work of three minutes may often prevent a 
lameness of as many months. All horses that have fiat soles 



MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET. 123 

low and weak heels, are easily lamed by sand and gravel ac- 
cumulating between the sole and the shoe. Every time tho 
horse comes from work this should be entirely removed, 
by carrying the picker all round. Strong-footed cart-horses 
do not require this care, but in a gentleman's stable, cleanli- 
ness demands it, whether the feet be weak or strong. 

Stopping the Feet. — This operation is performed only 
on the fore feet ; it is often neglected altogether, and often it 
is overdone. It consists in applying some moist matter to 
the sole, for the purpose of keeping it soft and elastic. 

Kinds of Stopping. — Clay and cow-dung are the stoppings 
in most general use ; each is employed alone, or in combina- 
tion with the other. Clay is apt to get too soon dry ; it be- 
comes hard as a stone, if not removed in twenty-four hours ; 
and if the horse be taken to the road, and put to fast work, 
with a hardened cake of clay in his foot, the sole is bruised 
before the clay is displaced. Clay answers very well, how- 
ever, for heavy draught-horses, whose work is slow, and 
their heels raised from the ground by high calkins. It is 
sometimes mixed with salt-water or herring-brine. As far 
as I can see, plain water is quite as good. Cow-dung con- 
tains much more moisture than clay. It softens the sole in 
less time, and never becomes too hard or dry. For ordinary 
feet, that is, feet with neither too much nor too little horn, a 
mixture of cow-dung and clay makes the best stopping. To 
this some salt may be added ; it prevents the dung from rot- 
ting. Hacks, hunters, and racers, are often stopped with tow 
or with moss. They are cleanly, and the quantity of moist- 
ure which they impart can be varied to suit the condition of 
the feet. The tow or the moss is put into the sole when 
dry, and water is poured upon it once or twice a day. For 
horses that have thrushy feet, or a tendency to thrushes, the 
clay or cow-dung is rather too moist ; tow answers much 
better. It should be neatly introduced, so as to fill the sole, 
and be on a level with the shoe ; it is secured by packing it 
a little under the edge of the shoe. Moss is used in the same 
way, and is fully as good. 

Mr. Cherry of London, invented a felt pad, which he in- 
tended to supply the place of stopping, by the moisture it 
would contain, and support the sole by the resistance itwoulo 
afford. These pads are to be obtained of all sizes ; they 
cover all the exposed portion of the sole and the frog. The 
inventor argues truly that the sole was intended to receive 
Bome pressure from tha ground, which becomes rare and 



124 STABLE ECONOMY. 

almost impossible when the horse is shod and worked on 
hard roads. He can not work in the pads, and it is not 
meant that he should ; but perhaps he may receive some 
benefit from them in the stable. They may be useful for 
soles that have a tendency to become flat. Care must be 
taken to have them of the proper size ; when too small, they 
fall out and are lost ; when too thin, they do not support the 
sole. It is only thin, flat soles that require any support. In 
general they have little need for moisture ; but the pad is 
usually dipped in water before it is inserted. To a concave 
foot these pads are useless, the soles have more need for 
moisture than for support : and for them damp or wet tow 
answers better than felt pads. Nimrod speaks of a groggy 
mare in whom Cherry's pads increased the inflammation of 
the feet and produced considerable suff*ering : he must have 
been mistaken ; the pads have no such power. 

The Times of Stopping must vary according to the state of 
the feet. All horses, those with thin flat soles excepted, 
should be stopped on the night before the day of shoeing. 
Except at these times, farm-horses seldom require any stop- 
ping ; their feet receive sufficient moisture in the fields, or 
if they do not get much, they do not need much. Cart-horses 
used in the town should be stopped every Saturday night till 
Monday morning. Fast-going horses have need to be stop- 
ped once a week or oftener during winter, and every 
second night in the hot weeks of summer. Groggy horses, 
all those with high heels, concave soles, and all those with 
hot tender feet, and an exuberance of horn, require stopping 
almost every night. When neglected, especially in dry 
weather, the sole becomes hard and rigid, and the horse goes 
lamer, or he becomes lame. 

Some Feet should not be Stopped. — When the sole is flat 
and thin, the less moisture it receives the better ; it makes 
the sole yield too much ; under the pressure of the super- 
incumbent weight it descends and often becomes convex, in- 
stead of maintaining its original concavity. Stopping alone 
will not bring the sole down, but it helps, when there is an 
existing tendency to descend. Flat soles are almost in- 
variably thin ; they can not sufler paring ; when softened, 
they not only yield to the horse's weight,, but they yield when 
they come upon a stone. On a newly-metalled road, the 
horse is lame, and his sole is easily cut through ; such soles 
are always sufficiently elastic without the assistance of 
moisture. 



MANAGEMENT DF THE FEET. 125 

Constant stopping will make even a thick sole too soft. 
When the sole is so soft or so thin as to yield to any degree 
of pressure which can be exerted by the thumb, no moist 
stopping should be applied. If it be rendered more yielding, 
whether by stopping or by paring, the horse will go tenderly 
over a rough road, and his foot will be very easily bruised. 
I am aware that a high authority recommends the sole to be 
kept as elastic as possible. This is not the place to discuss 
such a subject. The fact is as I state ; experience enables 
me to declare that a yielding sole will lame the soundest horse 
that ever walked. Excessive stopping also produces 

Thrushes. — A thrush, as every stableman knows, is a 
disease of the frog. At first there is a slight discharge from 
the cleft of this wedge-like protuberance. The discharge is 
produced by the frequent, long-continued, or excessive appli- 
cation of moisture. A plethoric state of the body may be a 
predisposing, but moisture is the immediate cause of thrushes. 
They can" be purposely produced by stopping the feet always 
with a moist stopping, or by letting the horse stand always in 
dung. If a thrush be neglected, it spreads, involving the 
whole or greater part of the frog, the heels, and even the 
sole. The horn becomes ragged and irregular in its growth. 
The frog shrinks in volume, and the foot contracts. The 
horse is sometimes disposed to go much on his toes, that he 
may relieve the posterior parts of the foot ; but in general he 
has no lameness, except when the frog comes upon a stone, 
or receives pressure in rough or deep ground. When in its 
more serious stages, the disease should be placed under the 
care of a veterinarian. At the beginning, almost any person 
may cure it. Let the cleft of the frog and all the moist 
crevices be thoroughly cleaned, and then fill them with pled- 
gets of tow, dipped in warm tar. This simple remedy, re- 
peated ever} lay, often effects a cure. When a stronger is 
necessary, the Egyptiacum ointment may be used instead of 
the tar, or each may be applied alternately. Bad frogs may 
be greatly improved by shoeing with leather soles. 

To prevent thrushes in feet already disposed to them, the 
frogs must be kept dry. If the sole need moisture, the stop- 
ping must not be applied to the frog. This part may be 
defended by a coat of pitch, or the stopping may be confined 
to the sole. 

Anointing the Wall of the Hoof. — Among grooms 
and coachmen it is a common practice to apply oil or some 

11* 



l26 STABLE ECONOMY. 

greasy mixture to the wall, or, as it is sometimes termed, tha 
crust, all that portion of the hoof which is visible when the 
horse is standing upon it. They suppose that the ointment 
penetrates the horn and softens it. But in this there is some 
error. The depth to which any unctuous application pen- 
etrates is very insignificant. The only mode in Avhich an oint- 
ment can contribute to the elasticity of the hoof, is by prevent- 
ing its moisture from flying off. It operates like a varnish, 
protecting the horn from the desiccating effects of an arid 
atmosphere. A hoof ointment will exclude moisture as well 
as retain it ; and there are some feet which require an oint- 
ment to keep the moisture in, and others to keep the moisture 
out. Water alone enters the pores of horn very readily, and 
it never does so without rendering the horn soft and yielding. 
There are many horses, particularly heavy horses, that have 
weak feet, the crust thin, the sole flat, and the heels low. 
The crust is hardly strong enough to support the horse's 
weight. When softened it yields, the sole sinks lower, and 
the whole foot becomes worse than it was before. Such a 
foot should seldom be purposely softened by the application 
of water. It should have sufficient moisture to prevent brit- 
tleness, but no more. When the horse has to work long and 
often in deep, wet ground, an ointment will prevent it from ab- 
sorbing too much water. Should this or any other foot become 
brittle, it may be soaked in water, and then immediately after 
covered with an ointment to retain the water. I have ob- 
served the effects of long-continued application of water to 
the hoofs of horses that were employed for several days in 
carting sand from the bed of a river. The horn became ex- 
cessively soft, the nails lost their hold ; the sole, especially 
of weak hoofs, sunk a little, and the crust became oblique. 
Subsequently, when these horses came to their ordinary 
work on the stones, the horn became brittle, so brittle that it 
would hardly hold a nail. The surface of the hoof is nat- 
urally covered by a varnish which protects it from the air. 
But after this varnish is rubbed off by working in wet sand, 
by standing in sponge boots, or by the smith's rasp in shoe- 
ing, water enters the hoof very quickly, and leaves it as 
quickly, taking with it the moisture which the varnish bad 
previously retained. 

Then, to make a rigid, strong foot elastic, the horn should 
be saturated with water, and to keep it elastic, the ointment 
should be applied before the water evaporates. To keep a 
thin weak foot as hard and unyielding as possible without 



MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET. 127 

making it brittle, an ointment should be applied to prevent 
the absorption of water. 

The times of anointing must vary with the state of the foot, 
and the state of the road. During wet weather the thin foot 
should be oiled before the horse goes out, and the strong 
thick foot after the horse comes in. When the air is hot and 
dry, or the road deep and sandy, the ointment will generally 
require to be renewed every second day. 

Fish oil is in general use for anointing the hoof ; tar, lard, 
oil, and bees'-wax, melted together in equal proportions, form 
a better and more durable application. Pitch, applied warm, 
lasts still longer, but it does not look well. It may be useful 
when the horse is going to grass. The hind feet are often 
anointed, but they seldom need it. The hoofs of cart-horses 
are usually coated with tar when they are shod, and, if they 
need such an application at all, this is the time to make it. 
[We have great doubts as to the utility of oiling the horse's 
hoof, and in any event, it should be done with great caution. 
Youatt says, that oils and ointments close the pores of the 
feet, and ultimately increase the dryness and brittleness which 
they were designed to remedy.] 

Moisture to the Wall, besides softening the horn, has 
considerable influence upon its growth. In some horses the 
horn grows very slowly, in others very quickly. A deficiency 
is common among heavy draught-horses, and is often a serious 
evil. There are only two ways of increasing the growth : 
the one is to blister once or twice around the coronet, the 
other is to keep the foot constantly saturated with water. In 
both cases the horse must be thrown off work. Moisture 
might be applied to any extent in the stable, and the horse 
still kept on duty. But then the horn yields so much that 
this remedy creates as great an evil as-it removes. The horn 
grows in more abundance, but the sole sinks till the foot is 
almost or totally ruined. This happens, however, only to 
horses of great weight. It is necessary, therefore, in apply- 
ing much moisture to their feet, to turn such horses into a 
marsh for two or three months with grass plates. There the 
foot will receive moisture to increase its growth, and the sole 
will receive sufficient support to prevent its descent. These 
two, moisture and support, can not be fully obtained while the 
horse continues in work. The clay-box is a tolerable substi- 
tute for a marsh. 

When the secretion of horn is deficient in horses of less 
weight, with soles less flattened, moisture may be applied to 



128 STABLE ECONOMY. 

the wall without materially interfering with the horse's duty 
Sponge boots, leather boots lined with sponge, and shod with 
iron, are too expensive, for they are soon destroyed. A boot of 
any kind will do if filled with cold bran-marsh, changed every 
time the boot is applied. The moisture must never be applied 
so long as to render the foot extremely soft, yet the horn must 
never be allowed to become very dry. The boot should never 
be on more than three or four hours in the twenty-four, and 
the foot should be anointed, both sole and crust, whenever the 
boot is removed. An ordinary and simple way of applying 
moisture to the wall, is by means of what is termed a swab, 
that is, a double or treble fold of woollen cloth, shaped like a 
crescent, and tied loosely around the top of the hoof, so that 
it may lie upon and cover all the crust. This is kept con- 
stantly wet. It soon dries, and requires more attention than a 
boot ; but many horses stand in the swab that tear off a boot ; 
and by means of a swab, moisture can be applied to the wall 
without softening the sole or the frog. 

The Clay-Box. — In some establishments, the upper half of a 
stall, or one corner of a loose box, is laid with wet clay. A 
horse having tender, contracted, or brittle fore-feet, is put into 
this for one or two hours every day. Sometimes the floor of 
a loose box is entirely covered with the wet clay, and the 
horse turned into it all day, being stabled at night, that he may 
lie dry. The clay-box is good for some feet, and bad for oth- 
ers. It is used with too little discrimination for all defects 
of the feet, real or supposed. When the clay is very wet, 
the moisture softens the horn, increases its growth, expands 
the hoof, and brings down the sole. It also cools the foot, and 
tends to subdue inflammation. When the horse is of little 
weight, his feet strong, contracted, rather hot, and the heels 
high, the clay may be thoroughly soaked with water ; the 
horse's shoes had better be ofl", and he may stand in the clay 
all day for eight or ten successive days, if not at work. If 
working, one or two hours every second day will be spfficient. 
When the crust and sole are rather thin and weak, the latter 
tending downward, the growth of horn deficient, the clay 
should be tougher, having no loose water about it, the horse's 
shoes should be kept on, and he may stand in the clay two 
hours every day. In the first case the sole is to be lowered, 
the foot expanded and cooled ; in the second, the growth of 
horn is to be stimulated, and the sole supported. The. horn 
would grow faster if there were more moisture ; but were the 
clay softer, it would not afford sufficient supoort Additional 



MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET, 139 

moisture may be given to the crust by means of a swab. The 
clay -box is not good for thrushy feet, but in trifling cases 
the frog may be protected by a pitch or other waterproof cov- 
ering. 

Shoeing. — Many stablemen, especially those employed in 
livery stables, are very careless as to the state of the horse's 
feet and his shoes. The shoes are often worn till they drop 
oflf in the middle of a journey, and time is lost, the foot bro- 
ken or destroyed, and very likely the horse lamed. This is 
not the only evil. If the horse be doing little work, or be 
very light on his shoes, they may remain on too long. Fast- 
working horses require to have the feet pared down once every 
month, whether they need new shoes or not. When the horn 
is permitted to accumulate, the horse's action is fettered ; he 
can not step out ; he can not place his foot firmly on the ground, 
and he is very liable to corns. If he had no shoes, the horn 
would be worn away faster than it could be replaced, but the 
shoe prevents nearly all wear, and does not stop the growth. 
Hence at certain intervals the superfluous horn must be pared 
away. A month is the usual time. Some horses having a 
deficiency of horn, may go five weeks or more ; while others 
that wear their shoes very fast, may require a new set every 
three weeks. Farm-horses often go for six or eight weeks 
with one set of shoes. If the heels be strong they may not 
be injured by this. Their work is different, and their feet 
are diflferent. If the shoes of fast-workers are not worn out 
at the end of a month, the feet should be pared, and the old 
shoes can be replaced. When the heels are weak, or the 
seat of corns, the shoes may require removal every three 
■weeks 

The siioe and its m^ode of application must always vary 
according to the horse's weight and action, the state of his 
foot, the rate at which he travels, the state of the road, and 
.he nature of his work in reference to carrying, drawing, and 
leaping. To shoe horses properly, all or the most of these 
circumstances have to be considered. But this is not the 
place to describe either the kind of shoe, or the m.ode of ap- 
plying it. In general, both should be left to the smith. He 
knows little about his business if he requires instructions 
from his employer. Those who work in large towns and 
have much to do, know all the books from which an employ- 
er derives that which he would teach. 

The shoes should be examined when the horse comes from 
his work, and again when he is going to it. If there be a 



130 STABLE ECONOMY. 

loose or broken nail, or a clench started, or if the horse b<i 
cutting, let the smith be called at once. 

The Unshod Feet of Colts are often neglected. Some 
colts contract thrushes before they are stabled ; without look- 
ing for them occasionally, they may do much mischief before 
they are discovered by accident. They ought not to be neg- 
lected a single day. Others, especially those that do not 
stand very well on their legs, frequently wear down the in- 
side of the foot so much more than the outside, that the limbs 
become more and permanently distorted. The feet should be 
dressed every five or six weeks. 

Horses standing in Loose-Boxes, as stallions, hunters, 
and racers, often are, for several successive weeks, frequently 
have their shoes taken off. This is seldom a good practice, 
but much depends upon the floor of the loose-box, if paved, 
and not completely covered with litter, the bare feet are al- 
most sure to receive injury. Pieces of the horn are broken 
off, or the toe is worn down by pawing and scraping, to which 
idle horses are much addicted. If the horse were to stand 
here for twelve months, his feet in that time would become 
tougher and more solid ; but in the first three or four months 
they are injured more than improved. The horse is wanted 
before improvement has begun. If his foot be contracted, it 
may be expanded a little by letting him stand unshod ; but 
the floor must be soft and damp, or moist. If the sole be thin 
and flat, yet strong enough to bear the horse's weight, it will 
receive more support when the shoe is off than when it is on. 
It will be less likely to descend farther. But the floor must 
be such that it will press equally upon every part of the sole. 
If a clay floor be improper, the box may be laid with tanner's 
bark. Saw-dust, when in sufhcient quantity, and frequently 
changed, answers very well for a thin sole, and fine sand has 
been employed for the same purpose. Short, soft litter, how- 
ever, may supply the place of either. All that is wanted is 
gentle and uniform pressure. A contracted foot may require 
moisture, which may be given apart, in the clay-box, or by 
means of swabs. Racers often have the hoof much broken, 
and with no spare horn at the time they go into loose-boxes. 
Further injury may be prevented by putting on narrow shoes, 
like racing-plates, which save the crust, and permit the sole 
to receive all the benefit of support, which a common shoe in 
some measure prevents. 

In the Straw- Yard, a flat foot is sometimes mjured by 
excess of moisture, and thrushes always spread in this Dlace. 



OPERATIONS ON THE STABLE. 131 

When horses with such feet must go to a straw -yard, they 
ought previously to be shod with leather soles. All the ground 
surface of the foot may be covered with a piece of bend-leath- 
er, upon the top of which the shoe is nailed. To exclude the 
dirt and moisture, the sole must be stopped with tow and pitch, 
composed of tar and rosin melted together, and run in hot. 
Greasy stopping is never so good. [All this is of more than 
doubtful utility ; and experience shows it to be at least useless 
in all cases, and dangerous in many.] 

\ 
OPERATIONS ON THE STABLE. 

Bedding. — To a hard-working horse, a good bed is almost 
as essential as food. Many stablemen can not make it. It 
should be as level and equal as a mattress. There should 
be no lumps in the litter ; it should come well back, and 
slope from each side, and from the head toward the centre. 
Farm-servants and carters never give the horse a good bed, 
although their horses need it fully as much as any other. 
They generally have the litter all in a heap, or in a number 
of heaps, upon which the horse can not lie comfortable for 
more than half an hour. The effort such a bulky animal 
must make to rise and change his position, completely awa- 
kens him. His rest is broken, and his vigor never fairly re- 
cruited. Now, it is not difficult to make a good bed ; any 
body with hands may learn it in a few days. But no one 
thinks of learning such a thing. Those who become expert 
at it can not help their expertness. They never tried to ob- 
tain it ; practice gave it them before they knew it was of any 
use. But for all this it may be learned. Show the man how 
to use the fork, and how to spread the litter ; give him a pat- 
tern-bed in one stall, and make him work in the next, two 
hours every day I'ur a week. If he can not learn it in this 
time— the operation is really worth such trouble- -the man 
will never learn anything. 

The bed is generally composed of wheat straw ; but there 
are several other articles which are used occasionally, and 
might be used oftener. Saw-dust, wood-shavings, dried tan- 
ner's bark, and leaves, have been employed where they are 
easily and cheaply procured. They are not better than straw, 
nor so good ; but a very good bed may be made out of either 
of them. In some Eastern countries the dung, after being 
dried in the sun, is used as bedding ; it is finer than saw-dust. 

Oat straw is softer, but not better than that of wheat. The 



133 STABLE ECONOMY. 

Straw of beans or peas neA^er makes a good bed. I believe 
these straws might be employed more profitably as fodder, and 
on some farms they are. In some places it is usual to cut the 
bundle of straw across into two with a hay-knife. It spreads 
better, and a saving is made, for long straws are often wasted 
at only one end. 

Some people give the horse no bedding, or almost none. 
Whether they have ever been able to show that he prefers 
lying on the stones, I have not heard. But it is well enough 
known that the want of litter prevents repose, and blemishes 
the knees, the hocks, and the haunches. 

Changing the Litter. — In well-managed stables the dung 
and soiled litter are removed every morning at the first stable 
hour ; or, if the horses are going to work or exercise, this 
operation is delayed till they are gone. The dry litter is 
thrown forward, or put into an empty stall. That which is 
soiled is carried to the manure pit, or laid out to dry The 
stalls and gangways are then swept clean ; and sometimes a 
pailful or two of water is thrown over them to render the puri- 
fication more complete. After the floor is dry, a portion of 
the litter is spread out, levelled on the top, and squared behind. 
Everything in and about the stable is set in order, and the 
whole is clean and neat. By constant or frequent attendance, 
it is kept in this state all day. At night more litter is laid 
down, spread deeper, and farther back. 

In farm and many other stables the soiled litter, if removed 
at all, is removed at night when the horses come in, and are 
being supped. This is not right. It fills the stable with 
noxious vapors at the very time it has most need to be pure. 
When the horses go out in the morning, the litter should be 
changed before or immediately after they are gone ; the floor 
left bare, and the doors and windows open all day. At night 
the litter may be laid f'.own just before the horses are fed. 

Formerly it was ci.stomary to let the soiled litter remain 
too long below the horse. Even in racing stables it was not 
usual to clean out the stall oftener than once a week. All, 
or most of the wet litter was allowed to remain for several 
days. That which was trampled among the dung was carried 
out, but the remainder was covered by fresh straw, and left 
till the day of purification arrived. Now, however, in these 
and some other stables, the litter is completely removed every 
morning. It is impossible to have the stable warm, and at 
the same time wholesome, without doing so. 

This is a great improvement ; but as yet it has not been 



OPERATIONS ON THE STABLE. 133 

generally introduced. In cavalry, hunting, racing, and some 
of the superior coaching-stables, the stalls are completely 
emptied every morning ; but in very many others, though 
there may be a general and complete purification once or twice 
in a month, yet at other times much of the rotten and v^^et litter 
is left to form a bed for the new straw. While not in sufficient 
quantity to produce any sensible impurity of the air, it can 
only be called a slovenly, not a pernicious practice. But the 
stables of farmers and carters are in general too bad. Their 
horses never have a decent bed. There are no fixed times 
for changing the litter. When it becomes so wet and filthy 
that the keeper is somewhat ashamed to see it, he throws down 
some fresh straw to conceal that which ought to be taken 
away. That is done, perhaps, every day ; but it is not till the 
horse is standing fetlock-deep in a reeking dunghill, that the 
stall is cleaned to the bottom. 

Upon such a bed the horse can never obtain unbroken rest ; 
and the stable can never be comfortable. The noxious vapors 
arising from the rotting litter are destructive to the eyes, the 
lungs, and to the general health or strength. When there is 
a circulation of air sufficient to carry off these vapors, the 
stable is cold. While the horse is lying, the cold air is blow- 
ing over him on the one side, and the dunghill is roasting him 
on the other. 

This is an old practice, and, of course, not to be abandoned 
without a struggle. The farmer contends that it is the right 
way to make good manure, and the carter that it saves the 
consumption of straw. Manure may be made in this way, 
perhaps, well enough ; but horses are surely not kept for that 
purpose. Visit the stables of those who have been successful 
farmers. See how they contrive to obtain manure. 

Day Bedding. — Among veterinarians it has been a disputed 
point whether or not the horse should have litter below him 
during the day, some contending that he should, others that 
he should not. The straw, it is said, heats the feet, produces 
constaction, tenderness, and thrushes. It does nothing of 
the kind, never did, and never will. It does no harm what- 
ever. There is no need for either argument or experiment 
to decide this matter. It has already been tried on many 
thousand horses, and thousands more may be seen every day, 
who stand on straw twenty hours out of the twenty-four without 
receiving the slightest injury from it. If the straw be rotten 
dung, hot and wet, thrushes will be produced ; but this dung- 
hill, which some people call bedding, will do the feet no other 

12 



134 STABLE ECONOMY. 

injury. It is more pernicious to the eyes and the throat, pro- 
ducing coughs and blindness. 

Horses that do little work may have no need for day bed- 
ding ; but there are some who will not urinate upon the bare 
stones, and this is sometimes an evil. The water splashes 
upon his legs and annoys him, and he retains his urine till it 
gives him more uneasiness or annoyance than that produced 
by wet legs. This is more particularly the case with horses 
having greasy heels, or bare legs. If required to take the 
road with a distended bladder, he can not work. He soon 
becomes dull and faint, and perspires very profusely. If he 
had been standing on straw, his bladder would never have 
become so full. Then, there are horses that constantly paw 
and stamp the ground ; on the bare stones, they slip about, 
and sometimes lame themselves ; and they often break the 
nails by which the shoes are held. Many, too, are disposed 
to lie during the day ; without litter they can not, or ought not. 
The more a horse lies, the better he works. Lame or tender- 
footed horses can not lie too much ; and a great deal of stand- 
ing ruins even the best of legs and feet. Except the cost, 
there is no objection to day bedding. Some horses do not 
need it ; many are the better of it ; none are the worse of it. 

Washing the Stable. — In some places the floor is washed 
every morning, in others only once a week ; in very many it 
is never washed. The water, with the assistance of a broom, 
clears the grooves, and prevents the stones from becoming 
slippery. In a causewayed stable it removes the dung and 
urine which lodge between the stones, and contaminate the 
air. But, while water cleans the floor, it renders the stable 
cold and damp. On close or cold days the process should be 
omitted. If the horses all go out in the morning, the floor 
should be washed after they are gone ; the doors and windows 
being set wide open till they return. After washing, the 
floor is sometimes strewed with sand or saw-dust. This 
absorbs the water, roughens the stones, and gives ati air of 
cleanliness and comfort to the whole stable. It is very use- 
ful when the floor is naturally damp, or when wet operations 
are performed in the stable. 

Besides the daily, weekly, or monthly washing, which in 
some places is made upon the floor, the whole stable requires 
a general purification once or twice a year. All the wood- 
work, travises, doors, mangers, and racks should be thoroughly 
washed every six or twelve months ; and the stall or stable 
in which a horse having glanders has stood, should not be oc- 



OPERATIONS ON THE STABLE. 135 

eupied by any other horse till it has undergone purirication, 
which, in such a case, must be performed with great care. 
Hot water, soft soap, and a hard brush, when properly applied, 
will loosen and dissolve the dirt, and the whole may be re- 
moved by boiling water and a mop, such as is used for wash- 
ing coaches. The windows may be cleaned often. The 
walls and ceiling may be whitewashed with a solution of lime. 
When the stables are well lighted, a white color is rather 
glaring, and is supposed to injure the eyes. A little clay dis- 
solved along with the lime, produces a fine stone color. The 
walls and roof, however, can not be too white, if the stable 
has not sufficient light. 

A warm windy day should be chosen for this operation. If 
the stable contain more than two or three horses, and is never 
empty, only two stalls should be washed in one day. The 
whitewashing may be done in one, and this process should 
precede the wood-washing. When a large stable is all wash- 
ed on the same day, it remains cold and damp for a week 
afterward. The woodwork absorbs much moisture, and does 
not part with it very readily. It is better not to do much at 
a time, unless the horses can be kept out till the whole is 
dry. 

The underground drains, where there are any, should be 
examined occasionally before they become clogged, or much 
injured by rats. Defects in the pavement, breaches in the 
wood, decay of anything, or of any place, should be repaired 
at once. Attention to these, and to many other little things, 
of which a good stableman need not be reminded, saves a deal 
of trouble and expense. An industrious groom will keep the 
stable, and all belonging to it, clean and in order ; a lazy fellow, 
at most only puts them in order, and everything goes wrong 
at the inter\ als of his working fits. 



136 ST&.BLB ECONOMY. 



THIRD CHAPTER. 



STABLE RESTRAINTS. 11. ACCIDENTS. III HABITS — 

IV. VICES 

RESTRAINTS. 

By these I mean all those abridgments of the horse's liber- 
ty in the stable which prevent him from injuring himself or 
others. The twitch, the arm-strap, and the muzzle, are spoken 
of in connexion with the dressing of vicious horses. The 
partition between the horses is an abridgment of their free- 
dom ; its use and abuse are considered under the construction 
of stables. There are, however, some other restraints, of 
which tying up is the principal. Those connected with vice, 
or peculiar habits, are described in their proper places. 

Tying-up. — In the stable, horses are tied up by collars, 
neck-straps, or halters. They are attached to the manger, or 
to a ring driven in one corner, or in front, of the stall-head. 
The horse's head must have some play, the rein must be long 
enough to let him reach the hay-rack, and to let him lie down, 
yet so short that he can not turn in the stall, and attached to 
the stall in such a way that it can not get entangled among 
the feet. 

The Halter is made of rope. Sometimes the head-piece 
and nose-band are of web, which is better than rope : the nose- 
band is a running noose. The halter is seldom used for tying- 
up a horse ; by good stablemen never, without casting a knot 
upon the nose-piece, to prevent it from running ; but among 
inferior or ignorant grooms the halter is in common use ; want- 
ing a throat-lash, it is very easily cast. The horse can throw 
it :fF whenever he chooses. It often injures 'he mouth and 
the muzzle. The nose-band being^a running noose, the least 
strain upon the rein draws the noose so tightly that it forces 
the cheeks between the back teeth, where they are cut, andij 



RESTRAINTS. 137 

feeing commonly made of rope, its constant or frequent use 
produces a depression across the nose, or baldness, or a sore. 
The head-piece being always of the same length, can not be 
altered to suit the horse ; it is often too long, it falls back upon 
the neck two or three inches behind the ears, and if the horse 
happens at this time to hang back, his neck receives a twist 
from which it does not always recover. A long head-piece 
permits the nose-band to fall upon the nostrils, and if the 
shank be strained the horse is choked. The halter is not a 
proper article for tying up the horse ; it may be employed to 
lead him to the door, to the shoeing forge, or to exercise, or 
to tie him to the door while he is being dressed, but it should 
have no other uses. 

When taken out with a halter, a cinch, that is, a coil of the 
halter shank, is sometimes placed in the mouth to act as a 
bit, and give the man more command over the horse. He is 
often tied up with this cinch in his mouth, and if he happens 
to throw any strain upon the shank, his tongue is severely in- 
jured ; I have repeatedly seen it cut through, and the horse 
thrown off his feed, unable to eat for two or three weeks. 
When the cinch remains an hour or two thus tightened around 
the tongue and the jaw, a large portion, two or three inches, 
of the tongue mortifies and has to be removed, or it falls ofT. 
When the horse must be tied up with a halter, see that the 
head-piece be close behind his ears : ca'St a knot on the shank 
to prevent the nose-band from running ; keep it clear of the 
nostrils, and never tie the horse with a cinch in his mouth. 

The Collar is made of leather. The nose-band should be 
sufficiently wide to let the horse open his mouth *to more than 
its full extent. The head-piece has a buckle, by which it 
can be lengthened or shortened according to the size of the 
horse's head. When adjusted, the nose-band should be four 
inches clear of the nostrils ; among valuable horses this is 
the article almost invariably used for tying up ; it is usually 
termed a stall collar. [In America the word collar is not 
used in this sense. Leather head or halter is the term.] 

The Neck-Strap is much used in the stables of hard-work- 
ing horses, those employed in public conveyances. It is 
merely a leather band, two inches broad and a yard long, hav- 
ing an iron D or triangle for attaching a rope or chain, and a 
buckle for uniting the ends. It is preferred to the halter be- 
cause it is cheaper, and for many horses more secure : when 
sufficiently tight no horse can cast it ; but it permits him to 
turn half round in his stall, which is an inconvenience. 

12* 



'38 STABLE ECONOMY 

A.lone, it is not a good binding for biting horses, for it gives 
ilie man no control over the head : it ruffles the mane ; but 
where straps are used, this is. of no consequence. When on, 
It should be so tight that it can not pass over the ears, yet 
loose enough to admit a man's hand under it. 

The Rein by which the horse is bound to the stall has sev- 
eral names. In different places it is termed a collar-rein, a 
collar shank or shaft, and a binding ; most usually, shaft and 
shank are confined to the halter. For ponies it is sometimes 
made of leather, which is too weak for strong horses : in gen- 
eral it is rope, but a chain is in common use. In a perma- 
nent establishment chains are cheaper than ropes, and more 
secure, since some horses break or bite the ropes to get free ; 
but they are weighty and noisy. 

Sometimes two are employed to each horse, but in general 
one is sufficient for working horses : when two are necessary, 
the rings through which they pass are usually fixed on the 
manger breast, and distant, one from another, about three feet 
six inches. Some horses require a double rein, but not all ; 
when one will serve, it may be attached to the middle of the 
stall on the manger breast ; or, if the manger be in one cor- 
ner, the rein ring may be in the other corner, or directly in 
front, on the head wall ; it should be three feet three or six 
inches from the ground. The ring through which the rein 
runs is attached by an iron staple driven into the wood ; it 
answers the purpose very well in ordinary cases. In the sale 
stable of Mr. Laing, Edinburgh, a kind of pulley is used ; 
the rope runs easier, and requires less weight to sink it. 
(See Fig. Q,^^gQ 41.) 

The Sinker \_or Weight]. — 1\\q weight attached to the col- 
lar or halter rein, is usually a ball of wood loaded with lead. 
Where chains are used, the sinker is sometimes a lump of 
lead or a cast-iron bullet, weighing about four pounds, and at- 
tached immovably, so that neither the chain nor its appenda- 
ges can be taken away. In posting and coaching-stables this 
is a necessary precaution against loss and theft. Tying the 
rein to the ring, or loading it with a straw wisp, are both im- 
proper, and among restless horses, dangerous. 

ACCIDENTS CONNECTED WITH RESTRAINT. 

Some of these accidents arise from peculiar habits of the 
horse, others fr )m carelessness or ignorance on the part of 
his groom. 



ACCIDENTS CONNECTED WITH RESTRAINT. 139 

Getting Loose. — Some horses are very cunning and psi- 
severing in their efforts to get loose ; they often succeed 
during the night, and wander over the stable in quest of food 
quarrelling and playing with the other horses, disturbing their 
rest, and laming them. Some slip the halter over their ears 
these must be tied by a neck-strap ; or the throat-lash, by be 
ing set out from the head-piece, can perform the office of a 
neck-strap : others bite the rope through ; the only remedy 
for them is a chain. In admitting a strange horse to a large 
stable, it might be prudent to tie him up as if he were known 
to be in the habit of getting loose ; it will soon be seen 
whether orjiot the precaution be necessary. 

Hanging in the Halter. — Many horses attempt to get 
free by falling back upon the haunches, and throwing their 
weight upon the halter-rein ; there they hang for a while till 
some part of the rein gives way, or till they find it too strong 
for them. This is the true breaking loose ; cutting the rope 
with the teeth atid casting the halter are merely slipping loose. 
Such a forcible mode of getting free, or attempting to get 
free, is attended with some danger. If the tie suddenly give 
way, the horse falls back with such violence tha '. he is gen- 
erally lamed or injured. The haunch bones are sometimes 
broken, and the hocks seldom escape a severe contusion ; oc- 
casionally the head is cut, either by the fall or by the strain 
of the halter. I Imow of only two ways in which a cure is 
attempted ; one consists in giving the horse a good fright and 
a tumble, by freeing the rope at the moment he is trying to 
break it. This, however, is not a cure ; it seldom prevents 
the horse from repeating the attempt ; it only puts him on his 
guard against the sudden rupture of the tie ; he still persists 
in his efforts to break it, but he takes care not to fall back- 
ward. The other way is to tie him so strongly that no force 
he can exert will free him. After he has made a few unsuc- 
cessful trials, he appears to conclude that the thing is not 
practicable, and he desists. For an experiment of this kind 
a leather halter is too weak, the head-piece upon which the 
stress falls, should be of strong rope, sitting close behind the 
ears. If the manger is not sufficiently firm, the ring should 
be sunk deep in the wall. 

I believe that the use of a neck-strap, instead of the ordi- 
nary halter, deters many horses from this trick of breaking 
loose ; I have seen it succeed in several cases. As additional 
security, the halter may be put on too ; it keeps the head 
straight, so that the neck may not be twisted when the strain 



140 STABLE ECONOMY. 

is on the strap. The halter-rein should be as long as the 
strap-rein. Whenever the horse is observed hanging in the 
halter, with the purpose of breaking loose, he should be well 
flogged always from behind. 

This trick is often the result of bad management. An 
awkward or rude groom, by the maimer in which he ap- 
proaches a horse or works about the head, often frightens or 
pains him. The horse should never be struck on the head 
or neck, nor a blow thrieatened by a person standing before 
him ; it makes him draw back. The halter already spoken 
of, and the ordinary mode of filling the hay-rack, may each 
have something to do in producing the habit. ^ 

A few horses of determined temper will not be tied up 
after they have succeeded several times in breaking loose. 
They struggle so long and with such violence, that they in- 
jure themselves even when they do not get free. A loose 
box is the proper place for these. 

Standing in the Gangway. — When first stabled, horses 
are much disposed to stand as far out of the stall as they can 
get. They dislike the confinement ; they want to see about 
them, and they dislike the impure air so often found at the 
head of stalls when damp or soiled litter is thrown below the 
manger. The habit of standing in the gangway is incon- 
venient, particularly in double-headed stables, and injury is 
sometimes done by the efforts to prevent it. The horse may 
be tied short, close to the rack or to the manger ; but hard 
work, tender feet, or bad legs, may forbid this, since it pre- 
vents lying. The only alternative is to hang a bale be- 
hind him, upon which a furze-bush may be fastened. By- 
and-by, when the horse becomes accustomed to stand within 
the stall, the bale may be removed. It is seldom, however, 
that the habit is attended with so much inconvenience as 
to require this. The usual practice of suddenly striking or 
whipping the horse when he is found in the gangway, is 
foolish, and often dangerous. The horse makes a violent 
spring into the stall, and when his feet happen to slip, he 
receives a severe wrench, producing stifle, or hip lameness, 
or sprained loins, I have seen the thigh-bone broken in 
this way, and the horse had to be destroyed. 

Lying in the Gangway is common among those horses 
that stand in the gangway. They lie so far out of the stall 
that the halter-rein is put upon the stretch, and the horse's 
head has not sufficient freedom to let him rise. He must be 



ACCIDENTS CONNECTED WITH RESTRAINT. 141 

unbound before he can geX up. He has to lie perhaps all 
night on one side in an awkward position, and next day he is 
stiff and sore all over, and as unfit for work as if he had 
rested none all night. The only way of preventing this is by 
suspending a bale behind him, in the same manner as for pre- 
venting the habit of standing in the gangway. 

High and long travises are apt to make horses occupy the 
gangway both for standing and for lying. A horse that is 
very troublesome in either way, may be tried in a baled stall, 
or in one having low and short travises. 

Rolling in the Stall. — Many horses are much ad- 
dicted to this, especially during the night. Some practise it 
the moment they come off the road. They lie down, harness 
and all, and roll over from one side to another two or three 
times, and then rise and shake themselves as if much the 
better of it, and highly delighted with the feat.* It appears 
to do him good, and ought to be permitted when possible, the 
harness or saddle, however, being previously removed. Some 
manage it very clumsily. In the morning they are often 
found in an awkward or painful position, lying across the 
stall, or on one side of it, with the fore legs bent upon the 
chest, and the hind legs out of the stall altogether, projecting 
into the next. The horse can not stir, and must be righted 
before he can rise. His head must be liberated. By casting 
ropes or straps, two or three stirrup-leathers buckled together, 
over his legs, he may be turned over ; or he may be drawn 
away from the travis by pulling at the mane or tail ; or, in 
the same way, he may be drawn entirely out of the stall. 
When the horse is lying on his back, it is sufficient to cast a 
rope or strap across his hind legs, and pull him over. 

As long as the horse appears able to take care of himself 
in his rolling fits, he may be allowed to enjoy them ; out, 
when he is subject to accident, the rolling must be prevented, 
at least during the night, when there is no one to render as- 
sistance. All risk of injury is avoided by putting the horse 
in a loose box with his head free. In the stall, rolling may 
be prevented by a short halter-rein. It should be long enough 
to let the horse lie down, but so short that he can not get his 
head flat on the ground. Except in the pains of colic, no 
horse will roll without getting his head as low as his body. 

* When a horse rolls more than once, or at the most twice, after his Avork, 
and lies as if he were in pain, paws the ground, or looks at his flanks, expres- 
sing uneasiness, he is unwell j he has colic, and should be put under imme- 
iiate treatment. 



142 STABLE ECONOMY. 

When the manger is too low, this can not be done, for it pre- 
vents the horse from reaching the hay-rack. The manger 
should be raised. This plan interferes in some measure 
with the horse's rest. If he has to work all day, a wade 
stall with long travises had better be tried, in preference to 
shortening the halter-rein. A travis ten, or more than ten 
feet long, may prevent the hind legs from getting across the 
next stall, where they are apt to be trampled upon by the 
neighboring horse. 

Turning in the Stall. — Small horses often get into a 
habit of standing across the stall, or of turning round in it, 
head out and tail in. Injuries of the back, the head, the neck, 
and some lamenesses, are occasionally produced by a sudden 
and violent effort of the horse to right himself. He should be 
fastened by a halter rather than by a neck-strap, which gives 
him too much liberty ; and he should have two reins to the 
halter, each of the proper length. 

Lying below the Manger. — I haA^e spoken of horses 
that stand out of the stall, and lie so far back that they can 
not rise till the head is liberated. Others lie too far forward. 
For some reason which I can not discover, unless it be to lie 
well upon the litter, they throw themselves so far forward in 
lying down, that the head goes under the manger, or abuts 
against the wall. The horse can not obtain complete repose, 
and when not young and active, or when the manger is too 
low, he can not Tise from this position. He must be drawn 
back before he can get up. The space below the manger 
may be boarded up, and the litter should be spread well back. 
Perhaps the halter-reins might be attached to the travises in- 
stead of the manger ; placed so far behind the head, they 
would keep the horse back ; but I have never seen this tried. 

Halter-Casting. — This is the most dangerous accident to 
which the stabled horse is liable. The horse often scratches 
his neck, ears, or some part of his head, with a hind-foot. In 
doing that, or rather in drawing back the foot after that is done, 
the pastern is sometimes caught by the halter-rein. In a 
moment the horse is thrown upon his broadside, while his 
head and the entangled foot are drawn together. The neck 
is bent at an acute angle, the head lying upon the shoulder, 
and in this position it is retained by the hind-foot. The inju- 
ry which the horse receives varies according to the violence 
of his struggles, and to the time which he lies in this painful 
situation. The pastern, or some part of the leg, often the 
thigh, is sometimes deeply cut ; but this is not the worst pari 



ACCIDENTS CONNECTED WITH RESTRAINT. 143 

of the accident. Frequently the neck is bent so much to one 
side, and so severely twisted, that weeks must elapse before 
the horse is able to move it freely, and sometimes it remams 
permanently distorted, the head being carried awry. The 
neck has been completely broken in this way, and after the 
horse was liberated, it was discovered that he could not move 
a limb, nor make the least motion of any kind, with the ex- 
ception of breathing, swallowing, and a lew movements of the 
ears, eyes, and mouth. The remainder of the body was quite 
powerless, and the horse died through the course of the day. 
This fatal result is not common. 

When the horse lies long he is always a good deal bruised 
and very stiff, unable to get up without assistance. Some- 
times the back is injured so as to produce partial palsy of the 
hind-legs. When the horse happens to fall upon the leg that 
is drawn up, his head is below him, and if not immediately 
relieved, he is soon suffocated. 

In the most of cases this accident may be prevented. All 
that is necessary is to keep the halter-rein clear of the feet. 
It should not be needlessly long ; it should always be loaded 
with a sinker, and the ring, through which it runs should be 
at the proper height. Two reins prevent the horse from get- 
ting his head too far round on either side. As greater securi- 
ty, the rein may be made to pass behind the manger, and in 
that case one rein is sufficient. (See Fig. 2, page 26.) 
When the manger is low and the rack high, the rein must be 
long, and can not be kept tense, for the sinker can not descend 
far enough. The manger should be raised, or the reinring 
placed higher, by some other contrivance. 

Treatment of Stall-cast Horses. — The first thing to be clone 
is to liberate the head by cutting the rope, or the halter, if the 
horse be bound by a chain. Place him in a favorable position, 
and urge him to rise. After a horse has lain long in con- 
straint, it is often difficult to get him up. Sometimes he is 
perfectly unable to rise. His limbs are benumbed ; they are, 
I suppose, in much the same state as our own when we say 
they are asleep. The horse must have some assistance. 
Let one stout fellow support the head, another the shoulder, 
and place two at the tail, by seizing which they may lift the 
hind-quarters. Draw the fore-legs out, but not too much ; the 
horse rises head first. See that all hands be ready to give 
their aid at the moment the horse makes an effort to rise, and 
to this he may be urged by the lash. When on his legs 
steady him for a minute or two ; encourage him to urinate 



144 STABLE ECONOMY. 

Let his \efz8 and the side upon which he lay, be well rubbed 
If able to walk a few paces, it will help to circulate the blood. 
If he can not walk at first, try him again after half an hour 
Examine him all over, lest he have received any injury re 
quiring immediate treatment. He will not be fit to work on 
that day, and perhaps not the next. 

Sometimes the horse can not be got upon his feet ; he can 
not even make an effort to rise. Turn him over to his other 
side, and let that which was undermost be well rubbed with 
wisp or brush ; manipulate the skin — that is, pinch it, and 
raise it from the flesh, in order to restore the circulation of 
blood through it. With the same intention let the legs be 
rubbed, pulled, and the joints alternately bent and straightened. 
Give the horse a good bed, and as much room as possible. 
If the travis can be removed, take it away. If the horse have 
no sign of fever, give him half a pint of sherry in cold water, 
or a cordial-ball ; let him also have some water, and if he will 
eat oats, give them. By these means the horse may recover 
his strength and the use of his limbs sufficiently to rise with 
assistance. A trial should be made every half hour ; when 
not successful, there is nothing for it but the block and tackle, 
which maybe fixed to some beam or support across the stall. 
Pass a couple of stron.g ropes round the chest, and attach 
them to the pulley ; pad them with straw where they are like 
ly to cut the skin. If the horse can not stand when thus 
raised, support him a little in the ropes ; place his legs fair 
below him, and let his weight upon them very gradually. If 
he can not use them at all, let him down again, and make 
other efforts to restore his activity ; give more wine, rubbing, 
food, and water. Turn him often, and raise him again in an 
hour. — In a few cases the horse never recovers the use of 
his legs. He dies, or is destroyed. This happens from in- 
jury of the back, the neck, and the head. But I have seen 
the horse completely paralytic, when there was no appearance 
of injury in these parts. 

The treatment here recommended for stall-casting, is equally 
applicable to horses that have been cast in the field, in a ditch, 
or any situation where they have lain long in a position of 
constraint. The wine-cordial some people will object to, but 
it is an excellent remedy against exhaustion. 

Stepping over the Halter-Rein. — This and the last- 
mentioned accident arise from the same cause. The binding 
is too long, or tied to the ring unloaded by the sinker, and the 
horse is apt to get his fore-feet over it. If he be a steady 



ACCIDENTS CONNECTED WITH RESTRAINT. 



145 



pacific animal, no harm will be done ; he will wait for assis 
tance. But a troublesome or timid horse often injures him 
self. By attending to the length of the rein, and to the mode 
of securing it, this accident need never happen. A liberating 
ring, however, has been invented, and is used in some places 
to guard against it. 

Fig. 14. 




The ring, made of malleable iron, is attached to a cast-iron 
bolt, which slides into a socket of the same material, and is 
retained by a spring. This socket is fixed to the manger, 
with its open end down. As long as the ring is pulled up or 
back, it remains fast ; but when pulled downward, it comes 
away, and the horse is free. This is useful where the manger 
is too low, and can not be raised, but it gives little security 
against halter-casting. When the hind-foot gets over the rein, 
the strain is rather downward, but chiefly backward ; and a 
back pull will not free the ring. Still it may possibly be 
drawn out in the horse's struggles. The bolt should be pulled 
out occasionally and oiled, that it may not rust, and stick too 
firmly in the socket. 

Leaping into the Manger. — Young idle horses sometimes 
set their fore-feet into the manger, for the purpose, I suppose, 
of looking about them. This can rarely happen when the 
manger is at the proper height, and the halter-rein of the 
proper length. When a horse is observed in this situation, 
he must not be rashly struck to bring him down. Go to his 
head, loose the binding, and set the horse back, keeping his 
head well up, and rather off you. I remember a very trouble- 
some horse that had a trick of leaping into the manger. One 

13 



146 STABLE ECONOMY. 

day he had been put into a strange stable where the mangel 
was low, deep, narrow, and sparred across the top. He gol 
into it, and resisted all the keeper's efforts to get him out of 
it. He could not, or would not descend. Two stout pieces 
of board were procured, and laid across the manger top. By 
placing first the one foot and then the other upon these boards, 
he was brought down, merely by pushing him back. 

STABLE HABITS. 

Among stablemen the word habit is applied only to pecu 
liarity of conduct, to some unusual or objectionable action. 

Kicking the Stall-Post. — Many idle horses, and mares 
during the spring, more than geldings, amuse themselves at 
night by kicking at the stall-post, the travis, or the wall. 
They often injure the legs ; the point of the hock is generally 
bruised and tumified, and the horse frequently throws his 
shoes. Some are much worse than others. I have known 
them demolish the travis, break down the walls, and injure 
themselves very severely. In the Veterinarian, a horse is 
spoken of that persisted in kicking till he broke his leg. The 
habit, I think, is sometimes a species of insanity. There is 
no accounting for it. The horse may be perfectly peaceable 
in all other respects. Some seem to intend injury to horses 
standing next them. But many kick all night, though there 
should be no other horse in the stable. Few take to the habit 
while they are in full and constant work, and many give it 
over partly, or entirely, after their work becomes laborious. 
If curable, it will be cured by work. Nothing else brings 
them so effectually to their senses. 

Once confirmed, however, the habit is very rarely cured. 
When first observed, some means should be taken to check 
it. Most of them kick all to one side. Such should be tried 
in another stall, having a short travis on the kicking side, and 
no horse in the next standing. The groom sometimes nails 
a whin-bush against the post, and that appears to succeed in 
a few cases, especially with mares that kick only in spring. 

Clogs fastened to the legs prevent kicking, and if constantly 
worn for a long time, perhaps they might cure it. The horse 
might forget the habit, but in general he has a good memory. 
The second, if not the first night in which he finds himself 
unfettered, he recurs to his old trick. 

The clogs are applied to difterent parts of the leg ; to the 
pastern, to the leg directly above the fetlock, or to the ham, 



STABLE HABITS. 147 

above the point of the hock. The clog in most common use 
is a piece of hard wood, or a wooden bullet, weighing two 
or three pounds, and attached to a light chain from twelve to 
twenty-four inches long. The other end of the chain is 
fastened to the pastern by a strap. This is applied only to 
the leg with which the horse kicks. When he strikes with 
both, a clog is required for each. The horse should be fa- 
tigued when the clog is put on for the first time. The only 
objection to a clog of this kind is its liability to be trampled 
on by the other foot ; but the horse soon learns to take care 
of that. Sometimes the chain, without a bullet, suffices. 
Sometimes the chain is much shorter, and the strap buckled 
above the fetlock, not on the pastern, so that the clog lies 
upon the hoof without touching the ground. In this way the 
clog should be long or egg-shaped rather than round. The 
strap requires to be tighter than when it is placed upon the 
pastern, otherwise it falls down. A broad strong strap, ap- 
plied very tightly above the hock-joint, with or without a 
clog, prevents kicking, but it also prevents the horse from 
lying down ; it often marks the leg and makes it swell. The 
legs are sometimes shackled together. But this is seldom 
needful or right. The horse is apt to hurt himself, and he 
can not lie. I have met with cases in which all these means 
failed to prevent nocturnal kicking. 

Weaving. — This habit consists in darting the head from 
side to side of the stall. The horse stands in the middle of 
the stall, with his fore feet somewhat apart ; the motion of 
his head is constant and rapid, as if he were watching some- 
thing running from end to end of the manger. Sometimes he 
performs a kind of up-and-down motion, perhaps when he 
gets tired of the lateral. I am unable to discover the origin 
or object of this habit. Some horses are fond of playing 
with the halter-chains. They are of an irritable, restles? 
disposition, desirous of constant employment. They seem 
to have pleasure in making a noise with the chains, by draw 
ing each alternately and rapidly through the rings. Possibly 
this may have something to do in the production of weaving 
Whatever be the cause, the habit is harmless. A dark stall 
has been recommended ; but at this moment I know a con- 
firmed weaver who is perfectly blind. In general the horse 
should be tied with only one rein. 

Pawing. — Hot-tempered horses are much in the habit of 
scraping away the litter and digging their fore feet into the 
ground, as if they meant to tear up the pavement They 



148 STABLE ECONOMY. 

wear down their shoes very fast, break the nails, and keep 
their bed always in disorder. When the horse uses only 
one foot in pawing, a clog may be put upon it similar to that, 
employed against kicking. It may be fastened to the pas- 
tern, to the leg above the fetlock-joint, or above the knee- 
joint. In general, that is the most successful which is attached 
to the fetlock. The chain should be just long enough to let 
the clog hang against the hoof. When the horse paws 
equally with both feet, a clog may be placed on each, or the 
two may be shackled together without clogs. 

Shackles, or fetters, are two straps, one for each pastern, 
connected by a light chain ten or twelve inches long. The 
last link at each extremity of this chain is triangular, for ad- 
mitting the straps, which should be about twelve or fourteen 
inches long, lined inside with soft leather or cloth, and so 
broad that they can not cut the skin, from which the edges 
are a little raised by the inside lining. These fetters are 
objectionable ; they prevent the horse from lying down. 
They are sometimes employed for other purposes than that 
of preventing pawing. In the racing-stables, I believe, they 
are occasionally applied to keep an irritable horse from 
striking and wounding his legs while under the operations of 
his groom, and they are sometimes put on horses when they 
are turned out, to be retaken in an hour or two. 

Wasting the Grain. — Playful, lively horses, sometimes 
waste a great deal of their oats. They seize a large mouth- 
ful, look about while masticating, and suffer much of it to 
drop among the litter. Often more than half of the feed is 
lost. This may be partly prevented by giving a small quan- 
tity at a time, by spreading it thinly over the bottom of the 
manger, by shortening the halter-rein, and by placing the 
horse in a remote stall, where nothing will attract his atten- 
tion at feeding-time. Some waste the grain in another way. 
They drive it out of the manger by a jerk of the muzzle. 
The cross-spars, already spoken of, prevent this habit. 

Shying the Door. — While leaving or entering the stable, 
the horse frequently gets a fright. The posts catch his hips 
or some part of the harness, and besides being alarmed he is 
sometimes seriously injured. After this has happened several 
times to an irritable horse, he becomes somewhat unmanage- 
able every time he has to go through a doorway. He ap 
proaches it with hesitation, and when urged forward he 
makes a sudden bound, so as to clear the passage at a leap 
He is repeatedly injured by his own violence, and is ulti 



STABLE HABITS. 14£ 

mately so terrified and unruly, that he must be backed out. 
This habit may be prevented by wider doorways, and more 
care in going through them. When attempted early, it may 
be so far overcome that it will be unattended with danger or 
difficulty. The horse ought to be always bridled when led 
out or in. He should be held short and tight by the head, 
that he may feel he has not liberty to make a leap, and of 
itself this is often sufficient to restrain him. Great care must 
be taken to keep him off the door-posts. Punishment, or a 
threat of punishment, is improper. It is only timid or high- 
spirited horses that acquire the habit, and rough usage in- 
variably increases their agitation and terror. The man must 
be gentle and quiet. After the habit is fairly established, it 
is seldom entirely cured ; the horse may become less un- 
manageable, but still continue to require precaution. Some 
are much worse than others. Some may be led out, quite at 
leisure, when blindfolded ; others when they have the harness- 
bridle on ; a few manage best when neither led nor re- 
strained, but allowed to take their own way ; and a few may 
be ridden through the doorway that can not be led. When 
the horse is very troublesome, each of these ways may be 
tried. Some shy the door only in going in, others in coming 
out. 

Eating the Litter is sometimes regarded as a peculiar 
habit. It does not, however, deserve this name. If the 
horse have too little hay he will eat the straw, selecting the 
cleanest and soundest portions of it. But this is not what is 
meant. He eats the dirty litter, the straw which has been 
soiled by the urine. This he does only at times. It indi- 
cates a morbid state of the stomach and bowels. Put a lump 
of rock-salt in the manger. It is the salt contained in the 
litter that induces the horse to eat it. 

Licking themselves, other horses, the mangers, the ground 
and the walls, and eating earth or lime, arise from the same 
cause. The hair of horses often contains a good deal of salt 
deposited in perspiration, and it is to obtain this that the 
horses lick the skin of themselves and others. Give a piece 
of rock-salt, and if the horse eat earth, or lick a lime-wall, 
let him have a lump of chalk in addition to the salt. Place 
them in the manger and leave them there. The lick is some- 
times connected with fever, and requires other treatment. 
[Clay is very beneficial occasionally in small quantities, when 
snow is on the ground, or horses are so confined that they 
can not get to the ground ; or a few roots with the dirt at- 



150 STABLE ECONOMY. 

tached to them. But one must be careful not to give so 
many as to cause scouring.] 

Wind-sucking and Cnb-biting are spoken of in connexion 
with the management of defective and diseased horses. 

STABLE VICES. 

Horses are often termed vicious when they have no vice. 
Docile but bold horses may be excited to retaliate upon those 
who abuse them. They never strike but when they are 
struck ; they are obstinate, but should not be called vicious ; 
they are sullen and often refuse to perform painful exertions ; 
they require nothing but gentle treatment. Punishment in- 
variably makes them more dangerous, and ultimately quite 
vicious, even to ferocity ; they learn to give injury when none 
is oJETered. Some, especially mares, often feign that they are 
going to bite or strike, yet never do any intentional mischief; 
they merely desire to attract attention, and to be made pets 
of. The very best of horses often have this peculiarity. A 
foolish or timed groom is apt to deal too harshly with them. 
They may scowl and grind their teeth ; they may present 
their quarters, and even lift a foot as if in the act to strike, or 
they may fix their teeth in the man's jacket, but it is all in 
play. The best way is not to mind them, or at most to give 
them warning with the voice. It is a pleasing kind of fa- 
miliarity which need not offend nor alarm any one. Good 
horsemen generally like it as indicative of energy and en- 
durance ; and I think such horses become sooner and more 
warmly attached to persons about them than others of a heed 
less disposition. 

Some horses are perfectly quiet to the groom, but very 
quarrelsome in the company of other horses ; this is the case 
with mares more than with geldings, but it is common enough 
in geldings too : they bite or strike a strange horse the mo- 
ment he comes in reach, but seem to get reconciled to him 
after a little acquaintance. Horses of this kind should always 
work with the same companion, and stand in the next stall to 
him ; they never work well with strangers ; and in the stable, 
when standing beside strangers, they are so intent upon mis- 
chief, that they neither feed nor rest. 

All vicious horses are most easily managed by one person. 
I have often met with instances of balling, shoeing, and 
similar operations, being strenuously resisted when attempted 
by a number of persons, and yet easily performed when taken 



STABLE VICES. 151 

in hand by one. The horse appears to get alarmed, to expect 
something painful, when surrounded by a crowd. It is not 
wonderful that he should, for there are always several as- 
sistants at the performance of painful operations. 

Some are awed when harshly commanded and boldly ap- 
proached ; some must be soothed and cherished ; and some 
must occasionally be well flogged. There are many that, to 
be managed at all in safety, must be managed in perfect 
silence. To horses of this kind, every word increases their 
suspicion and terror ; they must be treated as if they were 
quite docile ; an attempt to bite or strike should pass without 
the least notice, and this sometimes confounds and tames the 
horse more than anything that could be said or done to him. 
Caresses and chastisement are equally pernicious or useless. 

Grooms and others often err in their treatment of vicious 
horses. They punish those that are not to be improved by 
punishment, and they apply the lash either before the horse 
has done anything to merit it, or some time after he has for- 
gotten the offence. No horse should ever be chastised with- 
out knowing why ; the object should be to prevent repetition 
of the offence ; but this is seldom thought of; the horse is 
flogged merely because the man is angry. There is a very 
common piece of stupidity which may be cited in illustration 
of this. By some means the horse gets free and runs off or 
scampers about, giving the man a great deal of trouble to 
retake him. While free, he gets kind words, he is called in 
a soothing tone, and perhaps coaxed to submit himself to the 
halter by an offer of oats ; he is patted and caressed till he 
is fairly secured, and then he is flogged, kicked, and knocked 
about, as if he had been caught in the act of committing a 
great crime. If this is ever to do any good, it should be 
done directly after the horse deserves it. As it is, he can 
not understand why he receives this treatment, or he must 
suppose it is the penalty of submitting himself, and the next 
time he gets free, he will delay surrender as long as possi- 
ble. This is but a sample of the way in which a horse, and 
especially a vicious horse, is often chastised : he is caressed 
and soothed till it is convenient and safe to punish him, and 
by that time he has forgotten the crime. If correction can 
not instantly follow the offence, none should be given. The 
horse may be injured, and there is not the least chance of 
his being improved. 

Biting. — There are horses who delight in biting. Some 
are so much addicted U it that it is not possible to enter their 



152 8TABLB ECONOM-^. 

Stall without obtaining substantial evidence oi their prowess in 
this respect. An experienced biter gives no warning. He 
knows the extent of his reach, and abstains from all demon- 
stration of hostility until the man comes up to the proper place ; 
then, quick as Hghtning, he darts at the intruder, and generally 
succeeds in tearing off some part of his clothing. Many are 
content with this triumph, and crouch into a corner of the 
stall, trembling, and expecting the accustomed punishment. 
Others, however, are not so easily satisfied. A single snatch 
is not sufficient. A ferocious horse makes repeated efforts 
to seize the man, and he is not content with a tug at the 
clothes, even when he can carry off half a yard of fustian. 
He takes a deeper and firmer hold ; he will struggle to seize 
his enemy ; he will shake him, lift him off the ground, and 
perhaps throw him down, and then attack him with the fore- 
feet, striking and trampling upon him. There are several 
instances of men having been killed in this way, generally by 
stallions. 

I have seen biters punished till they trembled in every 
joint, and were ready to drop ; but have never, in any case, 
known them cured by this treatment, nor by any other. The 
lash is forgotten in an hour, and the horse is as ready and 
determined to repeat the offence as before. He appears un- 
able to resist the temptation. In its worst forms biting is a 
kind of insanity. There are various degrees of the com« 
plaint. Constant and laborious work often converts a fero- 
cious into a very tame biter. So far as I know, there are no 
means of effecting a complete cure ; but, by careful manage- 
ment, mischief may be prevented, even in the worst cases. 
When not very resolute, the horse may be overawed by a 
bold groom. He may warn the horse by speaking to him ; 
and he may enter the stall with a rod, held in view of the 
horse, and ready to fall should he attempt to bite. After get- 
ting hold of the head, the man is safe. He may then apply 
a muzzle, or tie the horse's head to the hay-rack, if there be 
anything to do about him, such as dressing or harnessing. 
When grain or water is to be delivered, muzzling or tying 
up is not necessary. The man has only to be upon his 
guard till he get hold of the head, and retain his hold till he 
get clear of the horse. That he can easily manage by push- 
ing the horse back till he can clear the stall, by one step, 
after he lets go the head. 

When the rod is not sufficient to intimidate the horse, a long 
rope must be fastened to his halter. This must run through 



STABLE VICES. 
ft»- 15. — Stall for a Biteh. 



198 




a ring in the head of the stall, or in the head-post on the left 
side, and proceed backward to the heel-post, where it is se^ 
cured. This enables the man to draw the head close up to 
the ring, and to keep it there, till grain or water is delivered, 
till the horse can be bridled, muzzled, harnessed, or dressed. 
Of course the head is to be released, after the man leaves the 
stall ; but the rope remains in place, attached to the halter, 
and ready for use. 

A muzzle alone is often sufficient to deter some horses from 
biting ; or attempting to bite. These do not require to be tied 
up when under stable operations. But some, though muzzled, 
will strike a man to the ground ; for these there is no remedy 
but tying up. 

Kicking. — This vice is not so common as that of biting ; 
but it is much more dangerous, and the mischief is not so 
easily avoided. Some strike only at horses, and never attempt 
to injure persons. These have little chance of doing harm 
when placed in the end stall of a single-headed stable, where 



!^4 



STABLE ECONOMY. 



Other horses will never have occasion to stand or pass behind 
them. Those that kick at the groom, or persons going about 
them, are always most dangerous to strangers. A great many 
can be mtimidated by threatening them with the whip. Pre- 
vious to entering the stall, the man warns the horse by speak- 
ing roughly to him ; and by placing him on one side, he may 
be approached on the other. A drunken, or awkward groom, 
however, is almost sure to receive injury from a confirmed 
kicker ; and a timid man is never safe. Vicious, and perhaps 
all kinds of horses, discover timidity very quickly ; those that 
are so inclined soon take advantage of the discovery. Many 
kickers give warning. They whisk the tail, present the 
quarters, and hang the leg a moment before they throw it out. 
Others have more cunning, and give no notice. They often 
let a man enter the stall, when they turn suddenly round and 
strike out, either with one foot or with both. Some strike 
only as the man is leaving the stall with his back to the horse ; 
some are slow, and some so quick that the motion is scarcely 
seen till the blow is struck. Some strike with the fore-feet but 
these are easily avoided when the vice is known. 
Fig. 16. — Stall for a Kicker. 




STABLE VICES. 165 

Timid grooms are always too close, or too far away from 
a kicker. When the man must come within reach of the 
heels, he should stand as close to them as possible. A blow 
thus becomes a push, seldom injurious. 

When the horse is a ferocious kicker, so malicious and 
determined that it is very hazardous to approach him even 
with a rod — which in such a case, however, oftener irritates 
than intimidates — he must be placed out of the way in a re- 
mote stall, the partitions of which should be high and long. 
A Long rope must be attached to the head, nearly the same as 
for a savage biter ; but this, instead of drawing the horse's 
head up to a ring at top of the stall, draws him backward so 
far that the head can be seized before entering the stall. As 
long as the man keeps well forward with his hand on the head, 
he is safe from the heels. This rope is not attached at the 
stall-head ; it is supported in front by a ring placed in the 
travis near its top, and about three feet from the head-post. 
In some cases, a small door in the partition is requisite, through 
which the horse is fed and watered. When the door is large 
enough to admit a man, and the horse not a biter as well as 
a kicker, it renders a side-line unnecessary. 

Refusing the Girths. — Some horses are difficult to 
saddle. When the girths are tightened, or as the man is in 
the act of tightening them, the horse suddenly drops on his 
knees as if he were shot. Sometimes he rears up and falls 
backward. This is a rare occurrence. It is generally termed 
a vice, but it is difficult to understand it in that light. The 
horse sometimes cuts his knees to the bone by the violence 
with which he falls, and I should think he would not do that 
if he could help it. I am inclined to believe that the fall is 
involuntary, but how a tight girth should produce it, can not 
be told. In one horse that often, but not always threw himself 
down when the girths were tightened, I thought I could discover 
something like a broken rib, yet it was doubtful ; I could not 
be sure about it. 

Whatever be the cause, the horse should stand deep in 
litter when he is saddled, and the girths should be tightened 
by degrees. Let him stand a few minutes after the saddle is 
on, before the girths are full drawn, and never make them 
needlessly tight. 

There are one or two other stable vices so unimportant, 
that I think they deserve no notice. Refusing the crupper 
and shying the bridle are among them. These, and similar 



156 8TABLB ECONOMY. 

trifles, can hardly be called vices. They require a little tact, 
perhaps, but no particular mode of treatment. 

On the Habits and Vices connected with Work, I had written 
a section of some length ; but the press of other matter com- 
pels me to exclude this, which belongs to horsemanship more 
than to Stable Economy. 



WARMTH. 167 



FOURTH CHAPTER 

WARMTH. 

Hor Stables have been condemned by every veterinarian 
who has had occasion to mention them. They have been 
blamed for producing debility, inflamed lungs, diseased eyes, 
chronic cough, and recent cough, distemper, and some other 
evils, direct or indirect ; and a cold stable has been recom- 
mended, times out of number, for preventing them. I have 
elsewhere stated, that a hot stable and a foul stable have al- 
ways been confounded one with another, as if they were not 
diflferent. Mr. Youatt is the only exception that I know of. 
He seems to regard a heated and an impure atmosphere as 
two. His distinction is not, indeed, very broadly marked, yet 
it can be traced. It is not wonderful that it should have been 
overlooked by others. Heat and impurity, almost uniform- 
ly arising from the same source, must as uniformly co-exist 
and operate in combination. Hence the common error of con- 
sidering them as inseparable, or as a single agent. It must 
be obvious, however, that a heated atmosphere is capable of 
producing one series of effects, and an impure atmosphere 
another. The evils arising from impurity are described in 
connexion with the ventilation of stables. This is the proper 
place to consider the effects of heat. There is some difficulty 
in ascertaining precisely what they are. Some experiments 
would almost be necessary to arrive at accurate conclusions. 
We have ample opportunity of examining hot stables, and of 
observing the health and condition of their occupants. But 
thes^ hot stables rarely have a pure atmosphere. The air, as 
I have elsewhere observed, is never perfectly pure in any oc 
cupied stable ; but by pure I here mean comparatively pure 
quite wholesome, yet not quite free from extraneous matters 
An atmosphere of untainted purity can not be obtained in th* 
neighborhood of breathing animals, and it appears quite cer 
tain that it may suffer deterioration to a certain extent, without 

14 



iiJS STABLE ECONOMY. 

producing any evil. The only mode of learning the effects 
of a hot atmosphere, would be to place a number of horses in 
an apartment heated by fire or steam, and so well ventilated 
that emanations from the lungs, the skin, and the evacuations, 
would escape before they had time to operate in combination 
with the heat. The keen advocates for hot stables might try the 
experiment for a few weeks or months, and such an experiment 
would tell us at once what heat will, and what it will not do. 
So far as I have been able to observe, by close attention to a 
great number of horses confined in all kind of stables, it would 
appear that 

The Effects of Hot Stabling are only three in number. The 
first is a fine, short, glossy coat ; the second, a strong disposi- 
tion to accumulate flesh ; and the third is an extreme suscep- 
tibility to the influence of cold. These are the permanent 
effects. Those produced by sudden removal from a cold to 
a warm ' stable are somewhat different. For the first week 
the horse looks as if he were a little fevered. He does not 
feed well, but drinks much. Sometimes he is dull, and some- 
times restless, fidgety. If somewhat lusty, or if he eat and 
drink tolerably well, he often sweats in the stable, particular- 
ly about the flanks, the groin and quarters. In a few days he 
seems to become accustomed to the high temperature. His 
coat lies smoothly ; it glitters as if it were anointed ; the horse 
recovers his appetite, and rapidly takes on flesh. 

The short glossy coat is not in this country any evil. The 
accumulation of flesh is not always desirable, but the stables 
are never cooled for the purpose of preventing it. The third 
effect, that is, the intolerance of exposure to cold, produced by 
hot stabling, is a serious evil. If all the diseases, mostly of 
a dangerous character, which are ascribed to sudden exposure 
in a cold atmosphere, really have such an origin, a hot stable 
can hardly be more destructive than a foul one. It is univer- 
sally acknowledged, that sudden exposure to cold, that is, 
rapid abstraction of heat, is dangerous, but whether it have all 
the power which some attribute to it may be doubted. That 
cold often does mischief can not be denied, and that the hot 
stabled horse is in greatest danger is, I think, as unquestion- 
able. The least exposure makes him shiver, and everybody 
knows that this shivering is very often followed by a deadly 
inflammation. 

I do not say that hot stables will produce no other effect. 
^ speak only from my own observation, and of a stable without 
apparent impurity. \^ hen the air is tolerably pure, the heat 



WARMTH. 159 

can not rise to a grea*. height, unless it be produced by artifi- 
cial means. 1 have never seen a stable heated by fire, and 
can not say what would be the result of excessive heat. 
Diseased liver, debility, a broken constitution, are said to be 
the consequences of a long residence in a hot climate, but 
whether a horse's work and temperance save him from these, 
or whether an elevated temperature alone will produce them 
in him, I do not know. There is little analogy between a 
horse living in a hot stable, and a European living in a hot 
climate. Other circumstances diflfer so much that nothing 
could be learned by contrasting them. 

Warm Stables. — [When exposed to an average tempera- 
ture of 60 to 65 degrees, to keep up a healthy animal heat, 
the horse expires every twenty-fours, 97-i- ounces of carbon. 
The food which he eats supplies this carbon, and the oxygen 
which is respired in the atmosphere, is its consumer. The 
union of these two, carbon and oxygen, produces heat, and 
this is all we know of it. The colder the atmosphere the 
more oxygen it contains ; it follows, therefore, that the lower 
the temperature to which animals are exposed, the greater the 
consumption of carbon in their respiration, and the greater the 
amount of food necessary to supply that carbon ; and this is 
the reason why a horse in a warm stable fats faster, or is kept 
in better condition with the same amount of food than in a 
cold stable. A warmer atmosphere, or warmer clothing, 
as stated by Liebig, is merely an equivalent for a certain amount 
of food. The warming of stables is unnecessary except for 
the racer or trotter when in training, and the hunter and stage- 
coach horse at full work. For horses engaged in the ordinary 
work of the farm or the road, they are extremely pernicious ; 
for the moment they are exposed to a raw wind, or to standing 
in the open air, they are liable to take cold, when inflammation 
of the lungs, founder, and other diseases, are pretty certain to 
follow. We are persuaded that roomy, well-ventilated stables, 
of nearly the same temperature within as the atmosphere is 
without, are decidedly the most healthy for the horse ; and 
that he will do more ordinary work during the winter thus 
lodged, than if kept in a heated atmosphere, and be a hardiei 
and longer-lived animal. If the cold weather makes his haii 
a little longer, or his coat somewhat the rougher, this is of 
no consequence, when by it we secure greater hardihood, con- 
stitution, and endurance Our rule is to feed horses well ; 
keep them dry and clean ; use them fairly within their pow- 
ers : walk them cool after being heated ; then take them to 



160 STABLE ECONOMY. 

their stable, and properly clothe them if the weather requires 
it. When well-bred, thus treated, horses may attain an aver- 
age working life of tv/enty-five years.] 

Temperature of the stable. — When the stable is prop- 
erly constructed, and not too large for the number of horses, 
it need never be heated by fire or steam. These conditions 
being observed, I know of no case in which it is necessary to 
produce an artificial supply of heat for healthy horses. The 
heat which is constantly passing from the horse's body soon 
warms the air, and judicious ventilation will keep it sufficient' 
iy comfortable ; but in no case should a high heat be purchased 
by sacrificing ventilation so far as to produce sensible contam- 
ination of the air. It is better either to employ heavier cloth- 
ing, or to heat the stable by fire. 

Slow-work horses, and all those that are much exposed to 
the weather, and especially those that have to stand out of 
doors, must not have hot stables, yet they should be comfort- 
able. 

The temperature of stables is generally regulated by open- 
ing or shutting the windows. On very hot days, it may be 
proper to sprinkle clean water on the floor, or about the ground 
outside the doors. 

Sudden Transitions should be carefully avoided, most es- 
pecially when the temperature of the stable is habitually very 
low or very high. Whether the transition from heat to cold, 
or that from cold to heat, be most pernicious, is still a subject 
of debate. But it is admitted by all that both are injurious 
My own experience leads me to believe that cold does much 
more harm to a horse that has just been severely heated, than 
heat ever does to a cold horse. Either transition, however, 
should be effected by slow degrees. To a certain extent the 
horse may be inured to an alteration either way, without suf- 
fering any injury, if time be allowed for the system to adapt 
itself to the change. 

When the horse himself is very hot, he may be refreshed 
by standing about three minutes in a cool stable, but he must 
not stand there till he begin to shiver. Neither must a hot 
horse be put into a hot stable, especially if he have been much 
exhausted by his work. It makes him sick, and keeps up the 
perspiration, and some faint outright. A very cold horse 
should not be put into a very hot stable. If he be wet there 
is little danger, but if dry he becomes restless and somewhai 
feverish, and in this state he remains ill he begins to per 
spire. 



WARMTH. 161 

Clothing. — When it is desirable to keep the horse warm 
without endangering the puritjr of the air, he maybe clothed. 
Coarse slow-working horses require clothing only when sick. 
A fine coat is not much wanted in these animals ; yet if they 
have to stand in cold stables, and especially when the stables 
are not fully occupied, even these would be none the worse 
of a cover during some of the sharp winter weather. In the 
hunting and racing stables, clothes are used nearly all the year 
round, and they should be so wherever it is important to make 
the coat lie smoothly. The stable may be more completely 
ventilated when the heat of the horse's body is retained by 
appropriate clothing. Stage-coach and post-horses are not 
usually clothed, but a few covers are always kept for the sick 
and the delicate. The cavalry horses are never clothed. 

Clothes are of different Kinds. — There is one suit for win- 
ter and another for summer ; besides extra-heavy clothing, 
used in hunting and racing stables for sweating the horses. 
The last are termed sweaters^ and consist of one or more 
sheets of blanket-like stuff. Sometimes when copious sweat- 
ing is necessary, a single blanket is put on and covered by 
several old or half-worn quarter-pieces. These require to be 
frequently washed. That which lies in contact with the skin 
is apt to become hard and dirty. Unless it be soft and clean 
it galls the horse, and refuses the perspiration. When soaked 
in sweat it should be rinsed in cold water before being dried. 
When two hoods are put on, the outermost alone should have 
ear-pieces. That below it requires only ear-holes. 

A full Winter Suit is composed of a hood, which envel- 
opes the head and neck, a breast-piece for the bosom, and a 
quarter-piece for the body. This is sometimes termed a ker- 
sey-suit. It is made of a stuff so called, and is edged with 
worsted tape. A woollen rug is often employed as an addition 
to the ordinary suit, for very cold weather. Hoods are not 
much used except in hunting or racing-stables ; they are use- 
ful, however, at times, for sick horses, for sweating, and for 
exercise under physic, or in severe winter. The clothing in 
most general use for winter is merely a horse-blanket, or rug 
of sufficient size to cover all the body. The girth which se- 
cures the clothing is termed a roller, or surcingle. It should 
be broad, that it may be tight without producing uneasiness, 
and padded, that it may not lie upon the spine. When the 
horse is narrovv-loined, a breast-strap made of web is neces- 
sary to keep the cloth and girth from slipping back. 

The summer-clothing is composed of white or striped cloth, 

14* 



16:2 STABLE ECONOMY. 

linen, or calico. It consists of a single sheet of small dimeii 
sions. It is almost entirely an ornamental covering, but it is 
useful to keep oil flies and dust, and to prevent the hair from 
staring. 

Wea/hcr Clothing. — =-When horses go to exercise, they usu- 
ally go out in the stable-clothing, to which a hood and a blanket, 
or quarter-piece, may be added, if the weather demand them. 
But many require some defence while performing their work. 
This is particularly the case with carriage horses that have to 
stand for two or three hours exposed to the night air. A 
small quarter-piece, made of Mackintosh's water-proof cloth, 
is getting into use. It is thrown over the harness, to which 
it is attached ; it keeps the horses dry without heating them. 
Heavier . clothing would be desirable when the horses are 
standing, but it would make them sweat profusely, even at a 
slow pace, and is therefore objectionable. A good driver will 
endeavor to keep his horses in motion. At night, when a 
crowd renders motion impracticable, he might be, and often is, 
provided with a pair of rugs, which can be thrown over the 
horses till they be ready to start. Long standing in the cold, 
however, always benumbs a horse's legs, and should be avoided 
as much as possible, by occasional or constant motion. Du- 
ring wet weather, a piece of oil-cloth is sometimes worn across 
the loins of carl-horses ; it keeps the rain off parts that have 
little motion and no natural defence. Some also use a neck- 
piece. The owners of horses employed in street-coaches, 
are becoming more careful than they were wont. They gen- 
erally have some sort of covering for the horses when stand- 
ing in the weather. Water-proof sheets of different sizes, to 
cover one, or a pair of horses, are in use to protect them from 
rain. This stuff, however, is apt to make them perspire very 
much, when they are the least heated. Stage-coach horses 
usually have a light quarter-piece put on with the harness, 
and withdrawn when the coach is ready to start. 

Tearing off the Clothes. — Some horses destroy a great 
many clothes. They endeavor to pull them off, and tear them 
all to pieces. There are only three modes of preventing this 
trick ; the hinder portion, or the whole of the quarter-piece, 
may be made of hair-cloth, lined by a softer material to lie 
next the skin. Few horses like to touch this harsh substance 
with their teeth and lips ; but some will not rest till they 
manage to tear it off. A staff of wood is sometimes used; 
one extremity is* attached to the collar, the other to the sur- 
>n^Jft. This prevents the horse from turning his head round 



WARMTH. * 163 

to get at the clothing, but it also prevents him from lying 
down. The other mode is to tie the horse's head to the hay- 
rack ; of course he must be liberated when he is to lie down 
or to feed. 

In some stables the clothing is removed every night. The 
clothes last a great deal longer, but the practice of removing 
them at night, is advisable only when the clothing is light, or 
when the stables are warmer at night than in the daytime, 
which is generally the case. 

Application and Care of the Clothes. — In putting on the 
hood, care must be taken that the ears are fairly inserted, the 
eyes clear, and the strings sufficiently tight to keep the hood 
in its place without galling the skin. The breast-piece must 
not be drawn up so much as to press upon the windpipe when 
the horse's head is directed to the ground. The quarter- 
piece should be thrown well forward and subsequently adjust- 
ed by drawing it back, so as to lay the hairs, not to raise 
them, by pulling the cloth forward or -sidewise. The sur- 
cingle is to be placed on the middle of the back, and the pad 
fairly adjusted. Both the surcingle and the breast-band are 
to be just tight enough to keep the clothing in place. Sweat- 
ing-clothes are to be closely and generally applied, but must 
not descend so- far upon the horse's legs as to encumber his 
action. The breast-band and the breast-piece are to be quite 
slack. The saddle alone keeps them from shifting backward. 

All the clothing is to be shook and dried every morning, 
after dressing the horse. The loose hair and dust can be 
removed by beating and brushing. A small birch broom is 
convenient for taking off loose hair ; that which is packed 
and woven into the cloth does no harm. When soiled by 
urine, the clothing must be wholly or partially washed with 
soap and water. The summer clothing is to be repaired, 
washed, dried, and laid carefully away, on the approach of 
winter. Now and then it may be examined and aired. The 
woollen articles, when out of use, are to be kept perfectly 
dry ; they should be examined every month, brushed, and 
aired in the sun. 



164 STABLE ECONOMT. 



FIFTH CHAPTER. 

FOOD. 

1. ARTICLES OF FOOD II. COMPOSITION OF FOOD III. PREP- 
ARATION OF FOOD IV. ASSIMILATION OF THE FOOD V. IN- 
DIGESTION OF THE FOOD VI. PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING— 

VII. PRACTICE OF FEEDING VIII. PASTURING — IX. SOILING 

•X. FEEDING AT STRAW-YARD. 

ARTICLES USED AS FOOD. 

Kinds of Food. — In this country horses are fed upon oats, 
hay, grass, and roots. Many people talk as if they could be 
fed on nothing else. But in other parts of the world, where 
the productions of the soil are different, the food of the horse 
is different. " In some sterile countries, they are forced to 
subsist on dried fish, and even on vegetable mould ; in Ara- 
bia, on milk, flesh-balls, eggs, broth, &c. In India, horses 
are variously fed. The native grasses are judged very nu- 
tritious. Few, perhaps no oats are grown ; barley is rare, 
and not commonly given to horses. In Bengal, a vetch, 
something like the tare is used. On the western side of In- 
dia, a sort of pigeon-pea, called gram {cicer arietinum), forms 
the ordinary food, with grass while in season, and hay all the 
year round. Indian-corn or rice is seldom given. In the 
West Indies, maize, Guinea-corn, sugar-cane tops, and some- 
times molasses, are given. In the Mahratta country, salt, 
pepper, and other spices, are made into balls, with flour and 
butter, and these are supposed to produce animation, and to 
fine the coat. Broth made from sheep's-head, is sometimes 
given. In France, Spain, and Italy, besides the grasses, the 
leaves of limes, vines, the tops of acacia, and the seeds of 
the carab-tree, are given to horses."* 

[In the United States many different kinds of natural and 
cultivated grasses, green or dried as hay, are used in feeding 
• Loudon's Enc. of Agric, p. 1004. 



ARTICLES USED AS FOOD. 165 

horses ; also Indian, Egyptian, and broom corn, their blades 
and stalk ; sugar and wild cane tops, and molasses drippings ; 
rice, wheat, and other straw of different kinds, and their 
grain and bran ; beans, pease, and their pods and vines ; ar- 
tichoke and potato tops and their roots, together with many 
other vegetables ; pumpkins, squash, and other vine fruit ; flax 
and flaxseed ; sunflower seed ; acorns and other nuts ; the 
twigs, buds, and leaves of trees ; apples and other fruit ; cab- 
bage.] 

The articles upon which horses are fed in this country are 
usually arranged into three classes. That which possesses 
the least nutriment in proportion to its bulk, is termed fodder, 
and consists of grass, hay, and straw ; that which possesses 
the most nutriment, in proportion to its bulk, is termed corn. 
This word is often used as if it belonged exclusively to oats ; 
but it is a general name for all the kinds of grain and pulse 
upon which horses are fed. In this work it is used only in 
its general sense. Roots, such as carrots, turnips, and pota- 
toes, form the third kind of food. In relation to their bulk, 
they have less nutriment than grain, and more than fodder. I 
do not think this classification is of any use, and here it will 
not be regarded, but it is well to know the meaning usually 
attached to the terms. 

Green Herbage. — There are several kinds of green food, 
but the individual properties of each are so little known, that 
much can not be said about them. 

Grass is the natural food of horses. It is provided for him 
without the interference of art. It is composed of a great 
number of plants, differing much or little from each other in 
structure, composition, and duration. Some of the natural 
grasses are to the horse mere weeds, destitute of nutriment, 
though not positively injurious. Several are rejected, or eaten 
only when there is nothing else to eat, and none are sufficient- 
ly rich to maintain the horse in condition for constant work, 
even though the work be moderate. At a gentle pace he may 
travel a few miles to-day, but he is unfit for a journey to-mor- 
row. By cutting the grass and bringing it to the stable, the 
horse may be saved the labor of collecting it ; but still he can 
render very little service. 

Grass, however, or green herbage of some kind, is given 
to almost all horses during a part of the year. The young 
animals, from the time they are weaned till they are fit for 
work, receive grass as long as it can be had Hunting and 
racing colts excepted, they receive little else. 



166 STABLE ECONOMY. 

It is commonly believed that grass has some renovating 
and purifying properties, not possessed by hay nor by grain. 
It is true that all the kinds of green herbage, including clover, 
saintfoin, lucerne, tares, and ryegrass, produce a change upon 
«he horse. But whether the change be for better or for worse, 
is another question. For the first two or three days, green 
food relaxes the bowels and increases the secretion of urine 
and of perspiration. Very often it produces an eruption on 
the skin, particularly when given along with a large allow- 
ance of grain. When the horse is permitted to eat what he 
pleases, the belly becomes large. These effects may be 
termed immediate. They are most apparent at the com- 
mencement, but are visible so long as the horse receives any 
considerable quantity of grass. Green food produces other 
effects not so easily traced. Wounds heal more kindly, in- 
flammatory diseases are not so fatal, and chronic diseases fre- 
quently abate, or they entirely disappear under the use of 
grass. The horse, however, is always soft, when fed much 
on green food. He sweats a great deal, and is soon exhaust- 
ed by his work. 

Clovf'.r, Ryegrass, Tares, Lucerne, Saintfoin, and the Oat- 
Plant, are all used as green food. So far as the horse is con- 
cerned, one seems to be as good as any of the others. They 
appear to produce the same effects as grass. Amid such 
variety we might expect to find some difference ; b'jt I have 
not been able to perceive any. Some horses, indeed, like 
one article better than another, but this seems to be mere taste, 
for no one of them appears to be generally preferred nor re- 
jected. There are various opinions, however, as to the com- 
parative value of these articles. Some affirm that clover is 
less nutritious than ryegrass, some that tares are poor watery 
feeding, and others that lucerne and saintfoin are the best of 
the whole lot. But opinion on the subject seems to be quite 
vague. Whatever one affirms, another will be found to deny. 
In Scotland, lucerne and saintfoin are very little used ; but 
clover, ryegrass, and tares, are given each in their season, as 
if one were equal to another. 

Beans, wheat, rye, and oats, the whole plant, are some- 
times, but very seldom, and never regularly used as food 
for horses. Cabbage, and some other green articles, are eat- 
en, but they deserve no particular notice. Several, which 
form the ordinary green food of horses in other countries, are 
not grown here. The leaves and clippings of the vine are 
much used in many parts of France. 



ARTICLES USED AS FOOD. 167 

Whin, Furze, or Gorse. This is an abundant and cheap 
plant. It is very good green food for horses, and is procured 
when there is no other. To sick horses it is an excellent 
substitute for grass, and many will eat it when they will eat 
nothing else ; but it has been extensively tried as an article 
of ordinary feeding. It has long been used in many parts 
of Wales, and of Scotland, and in several of the Irish coun- 
ties. Mr. Tytler of Balmain was the first, I understand, to 
publish a useful account of its properties. His essay will 
be found in the fifth volume of the Highland Society's Trans- 
actions. " It appears that, for five successive years, Mr. 
Tytler fed his farm-horses from the beginning of November 
to the middle of March, on furze and straw, with a very mod- 
erate allowance of oats during only a part of that time. At 
first oats were given throughout the winter, but afterward 
only from the beginning of February, and then only at the 
rate of three pounds two ounces, or about one third of a peck, 
of average quality, to each ; the daily allowance of furze 
during the first period being tweny-eight pounds, and during 
the second, eighteen pounds, with fourteen of straw." 

Furze is generally used on the frontiers of France and 
Spain ; and the British cavalry while in the Pyrenees, undei 
the duke of Wellington, had no other forage. 

According to the Mid-Lothian Report (Appendix No. VI., 
p. 56), it has been found that an acre of whins is sufficient 
for six horses, during four months ; that they require two 
years to produce them ; that horses, with whins, and one feed 
of grain, were in as good order as with tv/o feeds and straw ;* 
that all the straw and one feed of oats were thus saved ; that, 
valuing these at sevenpence a-day each horse, the saving in 
seventeen weeks amounted on the six horses, to jC17 175". — 
from which, deducting five shillings a-week as the expense 
of cutting and bruising, there would remain jC13 12s., as the 
product of two acres. t 

Dry Herbage. — In this country the dry herbage consists 
of hay and straw. In France the vine-leaves are collected 
and stored for winter fodder. In the West Indies the tops 
of the sugar-cane are deemed highly nutritious, after they are 
dried and sweated a little in heaps. In a season of abun- 
dance, ricks of the cane-tops the but-ends in, are made in a 

* The " order," I suspect, would be nothing to boast of. 

t British Husbandry, vol. i., p. 135. See also the Annals of Agriculture 
vol. XXXV., p. 13. Ency. Brit., art. Agriculture. Farmers Mag., vol. xx., 
p. 282. Comp. Grazier, fifth ed., p. 559 ; and Quar. Journal of Agric, No 

ZJ. 



168 STABLE ECONOMY. 

corner of each field, to supply the want of pasturage and 
other food. These are chopped small, and mixed with com- 
mon salt, or sprinkled with a solution of molasses. Maize 
is sometimes made into hay. " When Guinea or Indian corn 
is planted in May, and cut in July, in order to bear seed that 
year, that cutting properly tended, makes an excellent hay, 
which cattle prefer to meadow hay. In like manner, after 
the corn has done bearing seed, the after crop furnishes abun- 
dance of that kind of fodder which keeps well in ricks for 
two or three years."* " In some places dried ferns, reeds, 
flags, small branches, or twigs, are dried and used as substi- 
tutes for hay."t Doubtless there are many other plants made 
into fodder in different parts of the world. Where Canary 
corn is raised, the chaff* and straw are given to horses, from 
which it is said they derive more nutriment than from hay. 

Hay. — In Scotland, most of the hay used for horses is 
composed of ryegrass, or ryegrass and clover. The natural 
hay, which is not very much used here, contains several 
plants. Much of the hay in Scotland is bad. A good deal 
is grown on poor land, and this is soft, dwarfish, and desti- 
tute of nutriment. But hay in general is not well made. In 
the south it is cured with more skill, and preserved with more 
care. The best we have in the west of Scotland is procured 
from Stirlingshire, and is composed of ryegrass and a little 
clover. 

In England clover-hay stands in high repute for hard-work- 
ing draught horses. In the market it brings 20 per cent, more 
ihan meadow or ryegrass hay. Hard upland meadow hay is 
preferred for hunters and racers, because, I suppose, they are 
apt to eat too much of the clover. In Scotland, ryegrass, or 
a mixture of ryegrass and clover, is considered the best for 
dU horses. Here we have almost no good meadow hay, and 
most of that made from the natural grasses is hardly worth 
preserving. 

Good Hay is about a year old, long and large, hard, tough ; 
its coior inclining to green, rather than to white ; it has a 
sweet taste and pleasant smell ; the seed is abundant ; in- 
fused in hot water, it produces a rich dark-colored tea. The 
less dust it has about it the better ; but, from the soil, and the 
way in which hay is made here, it is seldom free from dust. 
In damp weather hay absorbs much moisture, and weighs a 
a good deal the heavier. In England, the market weight -of 

* Bracy Clark's Pharmacopoeia Equina, 
t Blaine's Outlines of Vet. Med. 



ARTICLES USED AS FOOD. ICS 

new hay is sixty pounds per truss till the 4th of Septembei 
The truss of old hay contains only fifty-six pounds. 

New Hay is purgative and debilitating. It seems to be 
difficult of digestion. [American hay is drier and better 
cured than English, and we believe that it contains more sac- 
charine matter ; these observations, therefore can hardly ap- 
ply to it.] The horse is fond of it, and will eat a large quan- 
tity, much of which passes through him little altered by the 
digestive process, and probably retaining a good deal of its 
nutriment. On the other hand, hay which is very old is dry, 
tasteless, and brittle. The horse rejects much and eats lit- 
tle. Old hay is much recommended ; but by old I suppose 
is meant not new. In the south, perhaps, stacked hay does 
not so soon degenerate as in the north, where it is certainly 
old enough in one year. 

Heated Hay, sometimes termed mowburnt, is that which 
has undergone too much fermentation. In curing hay it is 
thrown in a heap to sweat, that is, till a slight degree of fer- 
mentation takes place, which is arrested by exposing the hay 
to the air. This, it appears, is necessary for its preservation 
in the stack. But sometimes the process is carried too far, 
or, more frequently, it is re-excited, after the hay is stored 
'past. Hay that has been thus injured is not all alike. Some 
of it acquires a very sweet sugary taste ; and this portion is 
eaten ; some of it is changed in color to a dark brown, and 
has its texture altered ; it is short, brittle as rotten wood, and 
has a disagreeable taste ; this portion seems to be rejected ; 
another portion of the same stack is mouldy, stinking, quite 
rotten, and no horse will eat this. All kinds of hay, however 
good originally, may suffer this injury. When the damage 
has been slight, most horses will eat certain portions of the 
hay very greedily ; they seem to be fond of it for the first 
week, but subsequently it is rejected in disgust. Upon the 
whola, I believe it is the most unprofitable fodder that horses 
can receive. When very bad it is dear, though obtained in a 
gift, for it often does much mischief, particularly to horses of 
fast-work. Much is wasted, and that which is eaten does 
little good. It is almost as poisonous as it is nutritious. Slow 
draught-horses may not, indeed, be greatly injured by it. But 
good wheat-straw may be better. To fast, hard-working 
horses, such as those employed in mails, it is a strong diu- 
retic ; and its diuretic power does not diminish by use. Hay 
forms an important part of the horse's food, particularly of 
those horses that receive no roots nor boiled meat. Bad 

15 



170 STABLE ECONOMY. 

hay will change the horse's appearance and condition ir 
two days, when he has an unlimitbd quantity of corn. By 
bad hay I mean that which is unwholesome. It may be 
poor, having little nutriment, but sweet and digestible, with- 
out being pernicious. But good straw is better tban un- 
wholesome hay for all kinds of horses. The kidneys are 
excited to extraordinary activity. The urine, which, in this 
disease, is always perfectly transparent, is discharged very 
frequently and in copious profusion. The horse soon becomes 
hidebound, emaciated, and feeble. His thirst is excessive. 
He never refuses water, and he drinks it as if he would never 
give over. The disease does not produce death, but it ren- 
ders the horse useless, and ruins the constitution. Should 
he catch cold, or take the influenza, which prevailed so much 
in Glasgow during the winter of 1836, glanders is seldom far 
off.* This worthless hay is always sold at a lower rate, and 
much of it enters the coaching-stables, but I am perfectly 
sure that it would be cheaper to pay the highest price for the 
best. One ton of good hay will, unless the men be exces- 
sively careless, go as far as two tons of that which is bad. 
To slow-work horses, mowburnt hay may be given vvith less 
detriment, but it is less unprofitable when consumed by cattle. 

Musty Hay is known by its bad color, its unpleasant 
smell, and bitter taste. It is soft and coated with fungi. Like 
all other hay, its smell is most distinct when slightly damped 
by breathing upon it. Old hay is often musty, without having 
been heated. None but a hungry horse will eat it, and when 
eaten in considerable quantity it is said to be " bad for the 
wind." In truth, it is bad for every part of the body. In 
some places they sprinkle this musty hay with a solution of 
sale, which induces the horse to eat it ; but even thus it an- 
swers better for bedding than for feeding, and to that purpose 
the horse applies the most of it. 

Weather-beaten Hay is that which has lain in the sward 
exposed to the rain and the sun. It is musty, full of dust, 
sapless, bleached, or blackened, and destitute of seed. Such, 
also, is the state of that which has stood too long uncut. All 
hay should be cut a few days before the seed is quite ripe. 
After it has lost most of its seed, and its juices, little is left 
to afford nutriment. 

* The influenza I mean, was not at all similar to a disease which went 
under the same name at the same time in England. We had almost none 
of the English influenza till the last week of May. 1837. In the month of 
June it was very prevalent. 



ARTICLES USED AS FOOD. 171 

Salted Hay, that is, hay with which salt has been mingled 
at the time of stacking it, is not much used in Scotland. It 
is not to be had. I can tell nothing about it. Horses are 
said to prefer it to any other. But the principal motive for 
salting hay is to preserve it when the weather requires that 
it be -stacked before it is sufficiently dry. Salt prevents or 
checks fermentation. It darkens the color of the hay and 
makes it weigh heavier, for salt attracts moisture. Salt, I 
think, should not be forced on the horse. It may excite too 
much thirst. Given apart from the food, he may take all 
that is good for him. Damaged hay is often sprinkled with 
salt water, which seems to render it less disgusting, and may 
possibly correct its bad properties. It should be wetted as 
wanted, for it soon becomes sodden and rotten. 

The Daily Quantity of Hay allowed to each horse must 
vary with its quality and the work. If the grain be limited, 
the horse will eat a greater weight of poor hay than of that 
which is more nutritious. If it be damaged, he must con- 
sume more than if it were sound, for he rejects some, per- 
haps a half, and that which he eats does not furnish so much 
nutriment. When the work is fast, the horse must not have 
so much as to give him a large belly. Eight pounds of 
good hay is about the usual allo%vftnce to fast-working hor 
ses, who may receive from twelve to fifteen or eighteen 
pounds of grain. Large draught-Jiorses will consume froip 
twenty to thirty pounds, but the quantity is seldom limited 
for these. Much, however, depends upon the allowance of 
grain. A German agriculturist calculates that eight pounds 
of meadow hay, or seven of that made from clover, tares, or 
saintfoin, afford as much nourishment as three pounds of 
oats. Of the hay raised on poor soils, nine pounds may be 
required. 

A horse can live on hay and water, and when thrown off 
work for a considerable period, he often receives nothing else. 
This is not always right. The horse becomes so feeble and 
so pot-bellied, that it is long ere better food will restore his 
condition for work. A little grain, some roots, or a bran- 
mash, though given only once in two days, will help to keep 
him in flesh. I have heard of the horse being kept almost 
entirely on hay, receiving grain only when he was to be used. 
I would recommend the owner to confine himself to bread 
and water for a week or two, and then try what work a beef- 
steak will enable him to do. ' There is a material difference 
between eating to live and eating to work The stomach 



172 STABLE ECONOMY. 

and bowels will hardly hold sufficient hay to keep even an 
idle horse alive. 

The only preparation which hay receives before it is given 
is that of cutting it into chaff, into short pieces. When given 
uncut, the groom does, or should, shake out the dust before 
he puts it in the rack. 

Hay Tea. — An infusion of hay made by pouring boiling 
M^ater upon it, and covering it up till cool, has been recom- 
mended as an excellent nutritious drink for sick horses, and 
also for those in health. It might perhaps be a very good 
substitute for gruel ; possibly a quart or two of the tea might 
not be a bad thing for a racer, given between heats, and tow- 
ard the end of the day, when the horse is beginning to get 
exhausted from fasting, but it has not been tried. 

Hay-Seed. — In Scotland, and wherever the hay is made 
chiefly from rye-grass, the seed is often made use of in feed- 
ing. It is sometimes mixed with the oats to prevent the 
horse from swallowing them whole, but most generally it is 
given along with the boiled food, either to divide it or to soak 
up the liquor. It contains more nutriment than the hay itself, 
but probably not a great deal, unless the hay has stood too 
long uncut. Some people say that hay-seed is bad for the 
wind, but I have never been able to trace any evil to its use. 
There is always much dust mingled with it, and this should 
always be removed by washing. Sometimes the seed is 
boiled, and sometimes merely added to the boiled food while 
it is hot. I do not know that boiling improves it, but it is 
much better liked after boiling or masking than in its raw 
state. 

Straw. — There are five kinds of straw used as fodder. 
[Of their relative value for food see page 199.] Straw, how- 
ever, is little used here. In many parts of Europe, wheat, 
barley, or rye straw forms the whole or greater part of the 
dried herbage, hay being almost unknown. In some of tho 
towns, wheat and oat straw are occasionally given to cart- 
horses, and in some cases to coaching-horses. In the 
country both white and black straw are in common use as 
winter fodder for the farm-horses. It is very probable tha 
wheat-straw, and perhaps some of the others, may soon be 
used much more extensively than they are at present. Good 
straw is certainly better than bad hay, and possibly, by in 
creasing the allowance of grain, and cutting the straw, hay 
might be almost entirely dispensed with. Though containing 
much less nutrijnent, it still contains some, and it serves quite 



ARTICLES USED AS FOOD. 173 

as well as hay to divide the grain and give it a wholesome 
size. It must be understood that food ought to possess bulk 
proportioned in some degree to the capacity of the digestive 
organs. Nutriment can be given in a very concentrated 
state, yet it is not proper to condense it beyond a certain 
point. Grain alone will give all the nourishment which any 
horse can need, but he must also have some fodder to give 
bulk to the grain, though it need not of necessity yield much 
nutriment. Straw, therefore, may often be used where hay 
is used. This has been proved very fairly in this country. 
The late Mr Peter Mein, of Glasgow, kept his coaching- 
hr/ses in excellent order for nearly eight months, without a 
Mngle stalk of hay. During dear hay seasons it is the cus- 
tom with many large owners, to make straw form part of the 
fodder. Wheat-straw is preferred, but few object to that of 
the oat. 

But when horses are living chiefly on hay, as many farm- 
horses do, during part of the winter, it must not be supposed 
that an equal quantity, or indeed any quantity of straw, will 
supply the place of that hay. The stomach and bowels will 
hardly hold hay enough to nourish even an idle horse, and as 
straw yields less nutriment in proportion to its bulk, enough 
can not be eaten to furnish the nutriment required. The de- 
ficiency must be made up by roots or grain. 

When much straw is used, part or the whole ought to be 
cut into chafl". It is laborious work to masticate it all, and in 
time it will tell upon the teeth, which in old horses are often 
worn to the gums, even by hay and grain. 

I had written thus far on straw in previous editions of this 
work. Yet Nimrod, in the " Veterinarian," for 1839, at page 
330, wishes " Mr. Stewart had said something of wheaten 
straw, the use of which for certain work, he is inclined to 
think well of." That I had said something may be seen by 
consulting the first and second editions, both published before 
1839. Why Nimrod should have a wish implying that I had 
omitted to notice this article, must be explained by the gen- 
tleman himself. 

Nimrod's residence in France seems to have given him a 
very favorable opinion of wheat straw. He says : "I am 
not only convinced that to the fact of horses in France eating 
as much straw as hay, is to be attributed their generally 
healthy condition, and also the non-necessity for physic, even 
to those who work hard and eat much grain (post and diligence 
horses for example) ; but I was informed by Lord Henry 

15* 



t74 STABLE ECONOMY. 

Seymour, at Paris, last March twelvemonth, that his race- 
horses, then of course doing good work, were eating nothing 
but wheaten straw and grain." — P. 514. 

It need not be supposed, from what Nimrod or any other 
body says, that straw is, in any respect, better for horses than 
good hay. When straw is given instead of hay, the allow- 
ance of grain must be enlarged, and it will depend upon the 
relative cost of all the three, which of them should be given. 
It is not every horse, however, that will eat straw. 

Bean-straw is tough and woody, and horses soon get tired 
of it. But I am persuaded that it might be advantageously 
made into tea. Bean-straw tea is much esteemed as a drink for 
milch-cows, and if not found equally good for horses, no harm 
can be done by trying it. Pea-straw also makes very good 
tea, but the straw itself can be entirely consumed as fodder. 
The white straws seem to make a very weak infusion. All 
the kinds of straw soon grow sapless and brittle. They 
should be fresh. 

Barn Chaff. — The shell which is separated from wheat 
and oats in thrashing is often given to farm-horses. It seems 
to be very poor stuff. It looks as if it contained no nutriment, 
yet it may serve to divide the grain, to make the horse masti- 
cate it, and to prevent him from swallowing it too hurriedly. 
In this way it may so far supply the place of cut fodder. But 
the barn chaff is usually mingled with the boiled food, and if 
the articles be very soft, the chaff may give them consistence, 
but it does little more. The coving chaff of beans is said to 
form a very good manger food. 

Roots. — Potatoes, carrots, and turnips, are the roots chiefly 
used for feeding horses. Parsnips, sugar beet, mangel-wur- 
zel, and yams, are occasionally employed. 

Potatoes are given both raw and boiled ; in either state 
they are much relished by all horses as a change from other 
food. They are rather laxative fhan otherwise, and especially 
when given uncooked. Given raw and in considerable quan- 
tity to a horse not accustomed to them, they are almost sure 
to produce indigestion and colic ; when boiled or steamed 
they are less apt to ferment in the stomach. For horses that 
do slow, and perhaps not very hard, or long-continued work, 
potatoes may, in a great measure, or entirely, supersede grain. 
They are little used for fast-work horses, yet they may be 
given, and sometimes they are given, without any harm. On 
many farms they form, along with straw fodder, the whole of 
the horse's winter food. In Essex, farm-horses have been 



ARTICLES USED AS FOOD. 173 

"kept throughout the winter entirely upon steamed potatoes 
Each horse got fifty pounds per day, and did the ordinary 
work of the farm with the greatest ease. Some salt was 
mixed with them, and occasionally a little sulphur, which is 
quite superfluous. 

According to Professor Low, fifteen pounds of raw potatoes 
yield as much nutriment as four and a half pounds of oats. 
Von Thaer says, that three bushels are equal to 112 lbs. of 
hay. Curwen, who .ried potatoes very extensively in feeding 
horses, says that an acre goes as far as four acres of hay. 
He steamed them all, and allowed each horse daily 21 lbs., 
with a tenth of cut straw, which he preferred to hay for this 
mode of feeding. 

The potatoes should be of a good kind and not frosted. 
They should always be cooked either by steaming or boiling. 
They are best when steamed. Horses like them as well 
raw, but they are excessively flatulent, and this bad property 
is much corrected by cooking, and by adding some salt. 
When boiled, the process should be performed with little 
water, and as quickly as possible. When nearly ready, the 
water should be altogether withdrawn, and the potatoes al- 
lowed to dry, uncovered, on the fire for a few minutes. They 
should be put on with hot water. They are always over- 
boiled. Horses prefer them when hard at the heart. There 
is a general prejudice against the liquor in which potatoes 
are boiled. It is said to be injurious. In small quantities it 
certainly produces no apparent evil. I often see it given, not 
as a drink, but along with potatoes, beans, and chafi', which 
are all boiled together and mixed into a uniform mass, in gen- 
eral too soft. In some places the potatoes are not washed 
when boiled. If the earth do not relax the bowels, I am not 
aware that it does any injury, and the horses do not appear 
to dislike it. When the mass, however, from the addition of 
chaif, requires much mastication, this sand or earth must 
wear down the tee*h very fast. 

Turnips are in very general use for farm and cart-horses. 
Of late they have also been used a good deal in the coaching- 
stables ; in many they have superseded the carrot. The 
Swedish variety is preferred. Common white and also yel- 
low turnips are almost worthless. According to Von Thaer 
100 pounds of Swedes are equal in nutriment to 22 of hay. 
For slow horses, turnips to a certain extent supersede grain 
but for fast-workers, they save the hay more than the grain. 
They have a fine odor when boiled, and this seems to make 



176 STABLE ECONOMY. 

the horse feed more heartily. They fatten the horse very 
rapidly, and produce a smooth glossy coat and loose skin. 

They are sometimes washed, sliced, and given raw, but in 
general they are boiled, and occasionally steamed. In the 
raw state they excite indigestion very readily, and are not 
much liked. Few horses get them oftener than once a day 
They may be given oftener, but the horse soon begins to re- 
fuse them. If they are to be used for several successive 
weeks, they should not be given oftener than once in twenty- 
four hours, or at most twice, and then not in very large quan- 
tities. When the quantity of food is limited, the horse will 
be glad to get them at all times, but in that case he must have 
little work. Straw, or hay, and turnips, will make an idle 
horse fat ; they will enable him to do some slow work, but to 
perform full work the horse will not, or can not eat enough 
to keep him in condition : and for fast work he would eat 
more than he could well carry. Most usually they are given 
only once a day," and at night after work is over ; chaff or 
hay-seed, and some grain, generally beans, are boiled along 
with them. They should always be washed. They require 
much boiling, and when large they may be cut. 

Carrots. — This root is held in much esteem. There is 
none better, nor perhaps so good. When first given it is 
slightly diuretic and laxative. But as the horse becomes ac- 
customed to it, these effects are not produced. Carrots also 
improve the state of the skin. They form a good substitute 
for grass, and an excellent alterative for horses out of con- 
dition. To sick and idle horses they render grain unneces- 
sary. They are beneficial in all chronic diseases of the or- 
gans connected with breathing, and have a marked influence 
upon chronic cough and broken wind. They are serviceable 
in diseases of the skin. In combination with oats, they re- 
store a wornout horse much sooner than oats alone. 

Carrots are usually given raw. Sometimes they are boiled or 
steamed, but horses seem to like them better raw. They are 
washed and sliced. They are often mingled with the grain, but 
I think they ought to form a separate feed. They diminish the 
consumption of both hay and grain. Some tell me that six, oth- 
ers that eight pounds of carrots, are equal to four pounds of oats. 
But the calculation can not be much depended upon, for the 
horse may eat more or less hay without rlie difference being ob- 
served. According to Curwen, a work-horse getting from eight 
to twelve pounds of grain, may have four pounds deducted foi 
every five he receives of carrots. F >r fast- working horses, 



ARTICLES USED AS FOOD. 177 

carrots never entirely supersede grain. Mention is made, in- 
deed, of an Essex sportsman who gave his hunters each a 
bushel of carrots daily with a little hay, but no grain ; the 
horses are said to have followed a pack of harriers twice a 
week, but the possibility of doing this needs further proof. 
For slow-working horses, carrots may supply the place of 
grain quite well, at least for those employed on the farm. 
Burrows, an English agriculturist, gave his farm-horses each 
seventy pounds of carrots per day, along with chaff and barn- 
door refuse, with which the carrots were sliced and mixed. 
He gave a little rack-hay at night, but no grain. He fed his 
horses in this way from the end of October to the beginning 
of June, giving a little less than seventy pounds in the very 
shortest days, and a little more in spring. The tops of the 
carrots have been given to horses, and it is said they were 
much liked and quite wholesome. 

Parsnips. — This root is used a good deal in France : in 
the neighborhood of Brest, parsnips and cabbages are boiled 
together and given to the horses warm, along with some buck- 
wheat flour. In the island of Jersey the root is much culti- 
vated, and is extensively used for fattening stock, and for the 
table of all classes. It is said not to be generally given to 
horses, for it is alleged that their eyes suffer under its use. 
Arthur Young, however, assures us, that the horses about 
Morlaix are ordinarily fed upon parsnips, and that they are 
considered '' the best of all foods for a horse, and much ex- 
ceeding oats." They are eaten both raw and boiled. They are 
most usually washed, sliced, and mixed with bran or chaff. The 
leaves, mown while in good condition, are eaten as readily as 
clover. 

Mangel-wurzel^ Yams, and the Turnip Cabbage, have each 
been employed as food for horses, but I have not been able 
to learn with what effect. 

Grain. — In this country the grain consists chiefly of oats, 
beans, and pease, but barley is now in very common use, and 
wheat is occasionally given. The last two articles, however, 
are rarely used to the exclusion of oats, but are generally 
mixed with them in certain proportions. Rye, buckwheat, 
and maize, are used as grain in various parts of the world, 
but very little or not at all in this. 

Oats. — There are several varieties which need not be de- 
scribed. 

Good Oats are about one year old, plump, short, hard, rat- 
tling when poured into the manger, sweet, clean, free from 
chaff and dust, and weighing about forty pounds per bushel 



178 STABLE ECONOMY. 

New Oats are slightly purgative, indigestible, and unprofit- 
able. They seem to resist the action of the stomach, and to 
retain their nutriment. They make the horse soft ; he sweats 
soon and much at work. [Oats, and indeed all kinds of 
grain, are less watery, and therefore more nutritious and 
sweeter, grown in America than in Great Britain ; so that 
these observations will not hold good entirely, applied to this 
country.] If they must be used when under three or four 
months old, they may be improved by kiln-drying. They are 
not good, however, till they are about a year old. They may 
be kept till too old, when they become musty and full of in- 
sects. The period at which oats begin to degenerate depends 
so much upon the manner in which they are harvested and 
preserved, that the age alone affords no rule for rejecting them. 
They can be kept in good condition for several years. 

Fumigated Oats are those which have been exposed to the 
vapor of ignited sulphur. They are put through this process 
to improve their color. A good deal of the sulphur adheres 
to the husk of the oat, which is of a pretty color. A little 
sulphur can not do the horse any harm, but light small oats 
absorb a considerable quantity. The sulphur is easily de- 
tected by rubbing the oats between the hands a little warmed. 
When the sulphur is in large quantity, the horses refuse the 
oats, or they do not feed heartily. I do not perceive that 
fumigated oats are objectionable in other respects. 

Ktln-dried Oats are those which have been dried by the 
application of fire. They are generally blamed for producing 
diabetes ; but though this disease is common enough, it does 
not appear wherever kiln-dried oats are used. In many'parts 
of Russia, oats and all other kinds of grain are kiln-dried in 
the straw before they are stored. It is not likely that this 
would be the case if it were so prejudicial to the oats as 
many people imagine. Most of the kiln-dried oats which are 
given to horses have been damaged before they were dried, 
and I suspect that the injury received in harvesting or in 
storing has more to do with diabetes than kiln-drying has. 

Bad Oats. — Some oats are light, containing little nutriment 
in proportion to their bulk; some contain much dust and 
chaff, small stones, and earth ; these can hardly be called 
good oats, yet there are others which are much worse. 
Light, husky, and ill-cleaned oats may be sweet and whole- 
some ; if they do little good they do no harm, but some oats 
are positively injurious to the horse. They may please the 
eye tolerably well, but they have a bad smell and a bitter 



ARTICLES USED AS FOOD. 179 

disagreeable taste. Horses do not like them. After the first 
day or two they begin to refuse them. That which they eat 
produces diabetes, a disease which goes under various names, 
the most common are staling evil and jaw-piss. I do not 
know how the oats obtain this diuretic property : many, as I 
have said, attribute it to kiln-drying, many to the oats having 
been heated, undergone a little fermentation in the stack or in 
the granary, and a few ascribe it to the oats being ill- 
harvested, musty, or half-rotten, before they are got off the 
field. Oats may be frost-bitten, damaged by insects, or in- 
jured in various other ways, but it seems yet uncertain what 
condition they are in when they produce diabetes : or what 
makes them so strongly diuretic. There is no doubt but 
heated oats will produce diabetes ; but whether any other 
alteration in the oat will have the same effect I do not know. 
Whatever be the cause, the oats must be changed as soon as 
it is discovered that they produce 

Diabetes. — It is the same disease as that which arises from 
the use of mowburnt hay. The horses urinate often ; the urine 
is quite colorless, and it is discharged in immense quantities. 
The horse would drink for ever, and the water is hardly down 
his throat till it is thrown among his feet in the form of urine. 
In a day or two his coat stares, he refuses to feed, loses 
flesh, and becomes excessively weak. He may for a time 
continue at work ; but if he catch cold, and remain at work 
while he has both the cold and the diabetes upon him, he 
often becomes glandered. 

The horses may not all be alike. In a large stud some are 
always more affected by these bad oats than others. The 
worst must go out of work for a while, and some others must 
be spared as much as possible, while a few may continue at 
their usual employment. The oats must be changed. Give 
plenty of beans, soaie barley, and good hay. Let each horse 
have a lump of rock-salt, and a piece of chalk in his manger. 
Put some clay and bean-meal in the water. Carrots, whins, 
or grass, may be given with benefit. But by changing the 
oats, and diminishing the work, the disease will generally 
disappear. If all these means fail, medicine must be tried. 
A. veterinarian will furnish that of the proper kind. But 
nothing will arrest the disease permanently unless the oats be 
changed. If not very bad, they do for horses in easy work. 
But while a horse has diabetes, he can not maintain his con- 
dition for full work. He would lose flesh though he stood up 
to the knees in grain. 



180 STABLE ECONOMY. 

There is a kind of diabetes which does not proceed from 
bad food. It is accompanied with a good deal of fever, and 
requires different treatment ; it may be suspected when the 
food has not been changed ; but the eye is red, and the mouth 
hot, and the horse is dull for a day or two before the staling- 
evil is upon him. 

Preparation of Oats. — Most frequently oats are given raw 
and whole. But occasionally they are bruised, or coarsely 
ground. Sometimes they are boiled, and sometimes germina- 
ted. There is no objection to bruising but the cost ; grinding 
is never useful, and sometimes it is improper ; boiling does 
not seem to improve oats, and, after the first week, high-fed 
horses prefer them raw ; germination is rarely practised, and 
only for sick horses. In Lincolnshire oats are malted in salt 
water, and given for three weeks or a month in spring. 

Oats are sometimes given in the straw, either cut or uncut 
The cost of thrashing is saved, but that is no great gain. It 
can not be known how much the horse gets. One may be 
cheated altogether out of a meal and another may be sur- 
feited. There is always some waste, for the horse must be 
getting very little grain if he eat all the straw he gets along 
with it, and if he get more, some of the grain is left in the straw. 

The Daily Allowance of oats is very variable. Hunters and 
racers receive almost as much as they will eat during the 
season of work. The quantity for these horses varies from 
twelve to sixteen or eighteen pounds per day. Stage and 
mail horses get about the same allowance. Some will not 
consume above fourteen pounds, others will manage nearly 
eighteen. In most stables some other grain is used. For 
every pound of barley or beans that may be given, rather 
more than an equal weight is taken off the ordinary allowance 
of oats. Saddle-horses receive about twelve pounds of oats, 
cart-horses from ten to fourteen. Those employed on the 
farm get from four to twelve pounds. The ordinary feeding- 
measure in Scotland, termed a lippy, holds from three to four 
pounds of heavy oats. 

Substitutes for Oats have been frequently sought. Many 
experiments have been made to ascertain how far their use 
might be dispensed with. Roots and bread have both been 
tried, and the results have shown that horses of moderate 
work, or even laborious work at a slow pace, can be kept in 
good condition on carrots or potatoes, with some fodder and 
no grain. The bread has been made from grain, but it does 
not seem to have been productive of any economy. Barley 



ARTICLES 0SED AS FOOD. 



181 



beans, peas, and wheat, are partial substitutes for oats. They 
may form a large portion of the grain ; and in Spain barley 
forms the whole of it. But in this country oats are in general 
as cheap as any of the other kinds of grain. It has been 
alleged that oats contain some aromatic, invigorating property, 
not possessed by other articles ; and it does appear that hoises 
fed on roots to the exclusion of grain, are not so gay as grain- 
fed horses. But whether oats, in equal weight, give the 
liorse more animation than other kinds of grain, is not known 
with certainty, although common opinion is in their favor. 

Oat-Dust is a dirty, brown, useless-like powder, removed 
from the oat in converting it into meal. It is sometimes 
mixed with the boiled food. It does not appear to contain 
any nutriment ; and it is blamed for producing balls in the 
bowels and obstructing them. 

Oat-Meal Seeds. — The husk of the oat, as it is sifted from 
the meal, is sometimes given to horses. This stuff is termed 
seeds. It always contains a little meal ; but is often adul- 
terated by adding what are called the sheeling seeds, the husk 
without any meal. It does very well as a masticant ; and 
may be mingled with oats, beans, or barley, to make the 
horse grind them, but it can not yield much nutriment, and 
many horses will not eat it. 

Gruel is made from oat-meal. It is very useful for sick 
horses : and after a day of severe exertion, when the horse 
will not take solid food, gruel is the best thing he can have. 
Few stablemen are able to make it properly. The meal is 
never sufficiently incorporated with the water. One gallon 
of good gruel may be made from a pound of meal, which 
should be thrown into cold water, set on the fire and stirred 
till boiling, and afterward permitted to simmer over a gentle 
fire till the water is quite thick. It is not gruel at all if the 
meal subside and leave the water transparent. Bracy Clark 
recommends that the meal be well triturated with a little 
cold water, in a beechen bowl, by a heavy wooden pestle. He 
thinks the trituration necessary to effect a union between the 
water and some constituent of the meal. This seems to be 
one of the " not a few useful and important discoveries" for 
which Mr. Clarke so clamorously demands our homage. 

Oaten Bread is sometimes given to sick horses. It may 
tempt the appetite and excite a disposition to feed. — See 
Bread. 

Barley. — There is much difference of opinion concerning 
this article. Some consider it quite as good as oats in every 

16 



183 STABLE ECONOMY. 

respect ; others allege that it is too laxative ; others that it 
is heating ; some that it is cooling ; and some that it is 
flatulent. In Spain, and in some other places, horses and 
mules receive no grain but barley ; in this country it is very 
often boiled and given once a day, and sometimes a little is 
given raw with every ration of oats ; and one or two pro- 
prietors have used, and perhaps still use it to the entire ex- 
clusion of oats. I can not, from personal observation, tell 
what are its effects when given habitually without mixture. 
But when given along with a few oats or beans, so as to form 
only a part of the feed, I know that barley has none of the 
evil properties ascribed to it. I am daily among a large 
number of horses, both fast and slow-workers, who receive a 
considerable quantity in the course of the twenty-four hours. 
At first, it relaxes the bowels a little, and unless it be min- 
gled with chaff the horses swallow the grain whole. They 
seem to swallow it more readily than oats. After a week or 
two the bowels return to their ordinary state. The skin and 
the coat are almost invariably improved by barley, particularly 
when boiled and given warm. Like every other kind of 
grain, it is somewhat indigestible, until the stomach becomes 
accustomed to it. If much be given at first, the horse is 
likely to take colic. But by gradually increasing the quan- 
tity from day to day, deducting the oats in proportion, the 
horse may be safely inured to barley without any other grain. 

White tells us of a Southampton postmaster, who fed his 
horses entirely on barley and cut straw. They were given to- 
gether, and the barley was steeped in water twelve hours before 
it was given. Two pecks of barley and one bushel of straw 
formed the daily allowance. It is said that, upon this, "the 
horses did more work, and were in better condition, than 
others at the same task upon the ordinary feeding." This 
IS the usual story whenever any new mode or article is rec- 
ommended. But nevertheless, it seems sufficiently clear 
that barley is not much, if at all inferior to oats. The price 
should influence the choice. Spotted or dark-colored barley, 
though rejected for malting, may be quite good enough for 
food, and it is often to be bought at the price of oats. It 
weighs about fifty pounds the bushel. Giving weight for 
weight of oats, at forty pounds the bushel, there are only ten 
feeds, while barley gives twelve and one half. 

Boiled Barley is used chiefly among stage, cart, and road 
horses. It is rarely given to the racer or to the hunter, ex- 



ARTICLES USED AS FOOD. 183 

rept when sick. Boiled to jelly, it is good for a hard dry 
cough, when there is no fever. 

Barley Mash. — Barley steeped or boiled. 

Malted Barley is that which has been germinated. It is 
steeped or moistened, and spread in a layer till it sprout. In 
that state it is given, though not very often. Horses are 
very fond of it, and they will take a little of this when they 
refuse almost everything else. But I do not know how they 
would do upon it for constant use. 

Malt is used a good deal on the continent, and is supposed 
to be highly nutritious, more so than the raw barley. But in 
this country the heavy duty upon malt forbids its use for 
horses ; and it is not certain that the process of malting im- 
proves the grain so much as to pay its cost. [Malting and 
cooking are valuable where it is required to lay on flesh ; but 
for working condition the food should be dry.] 

Malt Dust, in some places termed cumins, is that portion of 
barley which sprouts in germination. It is generally given 
to cattle, but horses sometimes get it mixed with the boiled 
food. They seem to like it very well. I do not know any 
more about it. 

Grains, the refuse of breweries, are sometimes given to 
horses, and are eaten greedily ; but it is alleged that, when 
given constantly, and so as to form the bulk of the grain, they 
produce general rottenness, which I suspect in this case means 
disease of the Uver. They are also blamed for producing 
staggers and founder. 

[The cart-horses oT the breweries of London are fed on 
grains. But they are horses largely disposed to fat, and have 
small lungs and livers. The well-bred horse when in quick 
work does not take on fat readily ; his lungs and liver are 
large. Grains consist of carbon and fecal matter. In the 
cart-horse, a part of the carbon of the grains is consumed in 
breathing, and the balance is deposited in the cellular tissue 
as fat. In the horse of quick work, the lungs and liver take 
up all the carbon, which being in excess acts to produce large 
quantities of bile ; this bile is passed off by the bowels, occa- 
sioning purging, and by reaction, costiveness. The bowels 
and the liver sympathize until the liver becomes diseased : 
and this disease usually is imflammatory in its early stages, 
ending in death by inflammation immediately or by ulceration 
ultimately. In the southern country, well-bred horses in quick 
work, fed on Indian corn (which abounds largely in the fat- 
forming principle), suffer in the same manner. The well-bred 



184 STABLE ECONOMY. 

or blood horse, not in quick work, fats rapidly on corn, b.^A 

would doubtless on grains. Where Indian corn is fed ex- 
clusively, as in the southern states, diseases of the liver are 
very frequent and fatal, and so are inflammation of the bowels 
and colic. The mule, in comparison with the blood-horse, 
has small lungs and liver, and is slow in his paces. He does 
better on Indian corn, especially if ground with the cob on, 
and this meal is fed to him. In the training stables of both 
the south and the north, in this country, little Indian corn is 
fed and this is cracked coarse like hommony.] 

Barley Dust is rather better than oat dust, but it is fitter for 
cattle or swine than horses. 

Wheat. — There is a general prejudice against wheat as 
horse-grain, especially in its raw state. It is supposed to be 
poisonous ; and without doubt many horses have been destroy- 
ed by it. Horses eat it very greedily, and are almost sure to 
eat too much, when permitted. Fermentation, coHc, and 
death, are the consequences ; but these are easily avoided. 
The grain seems difficult to masticate and also difficult to 
digest, and colic may be produced more readily by one meas- 
ure of wheat than by two of oats. I have never known it 
used to the exclusion of oats, but it is sometimes given in 
quantities not exceeding four pounds per day, and that divided 
among five feeds. Given in this quantity and in this way, it 
does no harm that any other grain will not do ; and it appears 
perfectly to supply the place of the oats which are withheld 
for it. For every four pounds of wheat, four pounds, or near- 
ly four and a half, may be deducted from the ordinary al- 
lowance of oats. 

Still, unless the use of good wheat renders the feeding 
cheaper, 1 do not see that it has any good property to recom- 
mend it. If a stone of wheat can be bought for less money 
than a stone of oats or beans, it may form a part of the grain, 
^.ising it at first very sparingly, and not exceeding the quantity 
I mention, four pounds per day. A larger quantity may be 
tried on two or three horses, but as I have not seen it tried 
to a greater extent, I can not tell what might be the result. 

Wheat should never be given alone. Chaflf, straw-chaff is 
best, serves to divide it, and ensures complete mastication. 
The wheat mixes better with the chaff when it is flattened 
between a pair of rollers. 

Boiled wheat is in common use. It is boiled with beans 
and chaff, and generally forms the last feed, or the last but 
one, at night. It sooi gets sour, and makes the mangers of 



ARTICLES USED AS FOOD 185 

wood very foul. No more should be boiled nor given than 
will be consumed before next morning. It should not be 
boiled to a jelly. It should always be mixed with chaff. 

The Husk of Wheat is very useful, and employed in all 
town stables. It goes under several names, of which the 
principal are bran, and pollard, hen-meal, and gudgings. 
There are two kinds, the one much finer than the other. 
The coarsest is most usually termed bran ; pollard is supposed 
to contain and to yield more nutriment ; but the difference 
does not appear to be great. 

Bran is seldom give in its dry state, but when beans or peas 
form the bulk of the grain, some dry bran is added, to make 
the horse masticate them, and to correct the constipating 
property of these articles. 

Bran-Mash is the usual food of sick horses ; it relaxes the 
bowels. Its laxative property has been supposed to depend 
upon mechanical irritation, which can not be true, since bran 
is constipating to dogs. It contains little nutriment, but sup- 
plies the place of grain to an idle or a sick horse, when he 
must be kept low ; and it helps to keep the bowels in order 
when the horse is confined to hay without grain. The bran- 
mash is given either cold or warm. Some horses like it bet- 
ter in one way than another ; some will not eat it when mash- 
ed, but will take it dry, and a few seem to dislike it altogether. 
The cold bran-mash is usually made with cold water ; as much 
being poured upon the bran as it will absorb. The warm 
mash is made with boiling water. The mash should be close- 
ly covered up till cool enough to be eaten. When oats, beans, 
and hay, form the ordinary feeding, it is usual to give a large 
bran-mash, about half a pailful, once a week. It relaxes the 
bowels, operating upon them very gently, and clearing out 
their contents. In Scotland, road and canal-horses work none 
on Sunday. On Saturday night they get a bran-mash instead 
of their ordinary feed of grain ; but when grass or boiled food 
is in season, bran is not generally used in this way. When 
the horses are in high condition, with bowels liable to con- 
stipation, the bran-mash prevents any evil that might arise 
from Sunday's rest ; but when low in flesh, doing all the work 
they can bear, they can hardly afford to lose a meal, even 
though they rest on Sunday. [Mashes are laxative, and of 
course debilitating. They should not be given to lean horses, 
that are to continue in hard work. But when they are to 
stand idle, or it is desired to make them fat, mashes act as an 
alterative and are therefore beneficial.] If the bowels be 

16* 



J 86 STABLE ECONOMY. 

costive, the mash may be given, but the grain should be given 
too; not both together, for a bran-mash almost compels the 
horse to swallow his corn without mastication. 

Many stablemen add bran to the boiled food. They seem 
to think its use indispensable ; they talk as if the food could 
not be eaten or not boiled without the addition of bran. This 
is nonsense. The food may be of constipating quality, and 
bran will be wanted to correct that ; or the horse's health or 
his work may make bran a useful article in his food. But to 
give bran as nourishment to a horse under ordinary circum- 
stances, is to give him almost the dearest food he can live 
upon even when his work does not absolutely demand stronger 
food. A shilling's worth of oats is a great deal more nourish- 
ing than a shilling's worth of bran. To the horse, bran is 
just what gruel is to man ; but the relative cost of the two is 
very different. 

Wheaten Bread, either brown or white, is much relished by 
nearly all horses. Occasionally it may be given to a horse 
that has been tired off his appetite, or to an invalid. It should 
never be less than twenty-four hours' old, and it should be 
given only in small quantity. Bakers sometimes give their 
horses a good deal of it ; but it ought to be mixed with chaff. 
Some will not eat it till it is mashed by pouring boiling water 
over it. 

Buck-Wheat, or Brank, is hardly known in this country, 
[t is used on the Continent, and the horses are said to thrive 
on it. Young says that a bushel goes farther than two of 
oats, and that, mixed with at least four times as much bran, 
one bushel will be full feed for any horse for a week. The 
author of the Farmer's Calendar thinks he has seen it produce 
a stupifying effect ; and Bracy Clarke says it appeared to him 
to be very laxative. In Holland, and many parts of Germany 
and Norway, it is made into a black bread, with which the 
horses are fed. 

Maize, or Indian-Corn, is much used as a horse-food in 
America, and in various parts of Europe. Cobbett recom- 
mended its introduction, and among its other uses, spoke of 
horse-feeding. I do not know that it has been tried sufficiently 
to determine whether it might be used with advantage during 
a scarcity of other grain. Probably it ought to be boiled and 
mixed with chaff, but horses eat it greedily when raw. Bracy 
Clarke says it is apt to clog the stomach and affect the feet 
in such a singular way, that the hoofs frequently fall off when 
the horse is on a journey. He alludss to founder, but seems 



ARTICLES USED AS FOOD. 187 

ignorant that any kind of grain, when improperly given, will 
produce the same effect. Maize does it more readily [per- 
haps on account of its greater amount of carbon or the fat- 
forming principle]. 

Rye is used in Germany, but generally in the shape of bread 
made from the whole flour and bran ; and it is not unusual, 
in travelling through some parts of that country, and of Hol- 
land, to see the postillions help themselves and their horses 
from the same loaf.* 

Beans. — There are several varieties of the bean in use as 
horse-food, but I do not know that one is better than another. 
The small plump bean is preferred to the large shrivelled kind. 
Whichever be used, the beans should be old, sweet, and 
sound. New beans are indigestible and flatulent ; they pro- 
duce colic, and founder very readily. They should be at least 
a year old. Beans are often ill-harvested ; and when musty 
or mouldy, though quite sweet internally, horses do not like 
them. They are often attacked by an insect which consumes 
much of the flour, and destroys the vitality of the rest. The 
ravages of the insect are plain enough. The bean is ex- 
cavated, light, brittle, and bitter tasted. A few in this state 
may do no harm ; but when the beans are generally infected, 
it is not likely that they are eaten with impunity, and very 
often the horse refuses them altogether. Damp, musty, ill- 
kept beans, though old, are as flatulent as those which are 
new. All kinds are constipating. 

Though in very general use for horses, beans are not so ex- 
tensively employed as oats. According to the chymists, they 
contain more nutriment ; and in practice it is universally al- 
lowed that beans are rriuch the stronger of the two. The com- 
parison, however, is almost always made in reference to a 
measured quantity. A bushel of beans is, beyond all doubt, 
more nutritious than a bushel of o- ^a, but it is questionable 
whether a pound of beans is stronger than a pound of oats. 
Beans weigh about sixty-three pounds per bushel, and if given 
in an oat measure, the horse may be getting nearly double al- 
lowance. This, I am persuaded, often happens, and hence 
arise those complaints about the heating, inflammatory nature 
of beans ; [they are constipating and their heating quality ia 
secondary, by inducing fever as a consequence of costiveness.] 
The horse becomes plethoric ; the groom says the humors 
are flying about him. It is very likely that he would be in 

* British Husbandry, vol. i., p. 146. 



188 STABLE ECONOMY. 

the very same state if he were getting an equal weight of 
oats. 

If beans do not afTord more nutriment, weight for weight of 
oats, they at least produce more lasting vigor. To use a com- 
mon expression, they keep the stomach longer. The horse 
can travel farther ; he is not so soon exhausted. " I remem- 
ber." says Nimrod, " hearing Mr. Warde exclaim, as his 
hounds were settling to their fox, ' Now we shall see what 
horses eat old oats, and what eat new.' I am inclined to 
think that this distinction may be applied to horses that eat 
beans, and those that eat none, for they help to bring him 
home at the end of a long day, and support his strength in the 
run." I believe Nimrod is quite right. In the coaching- 
stables beans are almost indispensable to horses that have to 
run long stages. They afford a stronger and more permanent 
stimulus than oats alone, however good. Washy horses, 
those of slender carcass, can not perform severe work without 
a liberal allowance of beans ; and old horses need them more 
than the young. The quantity varies from three to six pounds 
per day ; but in some of the coaching-stables the horses get 
more, a pound of oats being deducted for every pound of beans. 
Cart-horses are often fed on beans, to the exclusion of all 
other grain, but they are always given with dry bran, which 
is necessary to keep the bowels open, and to ensure mastica- 
tion. Beans are not in general use for racehorses, but are 
sometimes given to bad eaters. They are usually split and 
hulled, which is a superfluous process. For old hcrses they 
should be broken or bruised. 

The bowels are very apt to become constipated, and danger- 
ously obstructed when the horse is getting a large allowance 
of beans. They are so constipating that, as they are increased 
in quantity, bran must be added in proportion. Beans, and 
bean-straw, which is as constipating as the beans, should not 
be both used at the same time. 

Some horses will not eat beans. The Irish horses, when 
first brought to this country, always refuse them ; they invari- 
ably pick out the oats and leave the beans. It does not ap- 
pear that they dislike them, for after they begin, they feed as 
well as other horses. Ultimately, they seem to discover that 
beans are for eating, although it is often a long time ere they 
make the discovery. 

The horse, however, may soon be taught. Let him fast 
for an hour beyond the feeding-time, and then give him half 
a ration of beans without oats. If he still reject them, ofTei 



ARTICLES USED 48 FOOD. 189 

tliein split or broken, or moisten them, and sprinkle a little 
oatmeal over them, sufficient to make the beans white. If he 
still demur, put another horse, a hungry one, beside him, and 
he will soon teach his ignorant neighbor ; if he do not, I can 
not tell what will. 

Bean meal, or flour, is sometimes added to the boiled food ; 
Lut it is oftener given in the water to cure the staling-evil. 

Peas are seldom used without beans, with which they are 
mixed in large or small quantities. They may be given 
without either beans or other grain, but much care is neces- 
sary to inure the horse to them. Peas seem to be very in- 
digestible, more so than beans, and perhaps as much so as 
wheat : but when given very sparingly at first, they may be 
used with perfect safety. It is often said that peas swell so 
much in the stomach as to burst it. This is an error. Peas 
do absorb much water, and swell more perhaps than beans, 
but they never swell so much as to burst the stomach, for the 
horse can not or will not eat such a large quantity. When 
the stomach is burst, it is from fermentation, not from swel- 
ling of the peas. All kinds of food will produce the same 
result when the horse is permitted to gorge himself, or when 
he is fed in full measure upon food that he has not been ac- 
customed to ; but peas seem to be rather more apt to ferment 
than some other kinds of grain. 

Peas should be sound, and a year old. They weigh, on 
an average, sixty-four pounds per bushel. Pea-meal is 
sometimes given in the same way, and for the same purposes 
as that of the bean. Some prefer it for diabetes, and in a 
few places it is given in the water for baiting on the road. 

Vetch Seed has been employed for feeding horses; but I 
haVe learned nothing of the result. 

Bread. — In former times it was customary to feed horses 
with bread, and the statute book is said to contain several 
acts of parliament relating to the manner of making it. Ger- 
vase Markham, a very old author, says, " Horse bread which 
is made of clean beans, clean peas, or clean fitches, feedeth 
exceedingly." It is not many years since a bread, com- 
posed of wheat, oats, barley, and beans*, ground and mixed in 
varying proportions, was used in the racing-stables. The 
bread was well baked, and given when sufficiently old to 
crumble down and mingle with the grain. Eggs and some 
spices were sometimes introduced in making it. Nothing of 
the kind, so far as I know, is now used in this country. 

In different parts of Europe bread forms the customary 



90 STABLE ECONOMY. 

food of the horses. A French periodical of 1828 mentions, 
an agriculturist " who fed his horses with a bread composed 
of thirty bushels of oatmeal, and an equal quantity of rye- 
flour, to which he added a portion of yeast, and nine bushels 
of potatoes reduced to a pulp. With this bread he kept seven 
horses, each having twelve pounds per day in three feeds. It 
was broken into small pieces, and mixed with a little moist- 
ened chaiT." He had fed his horses in this way for four 
years. Previously he had used oats, hay, and straw chaif. 

The Magazine of Domestic Economy, February number 
for 1837, tells us that one ton of oats made into bread yields 
more nutriment than six tons of the raw article, and that in 
Sweden this has been proved by experience. It has never 
been proved in Scotland, and I dare say it never will. It is 
true, however, that a bread composed of oatmeal and rye, in 
equal quantities, has long been used for horses in Sweden. 
It is broken down and mixed with cut straw. It is in com- 
mon use over different parts of Germany. I can not learn 
any particulars as to the mode of making, nor of the quantity 
given, nor of the horses' condition. In France, many at 
tempts have been made to produce a bread that would wholly 
or partially supersede oats, which seem to be comparatively 
precious on the continent. Buckwheat, rye, barley, wheat, 
and potatoes, have been tried in varying proportion, and, ac- 
cording to sev^eral accounts, with success. But it does not 
appear very distinctly why these articles should be converted 
into bread, which is a costly process, rather than given raw 
or boiled. It is indeed alleged that some of the constituent 
principles are not digestible until they have undergone fer- 
mentation ; and it may be so, but no proof is shown that I 
have seep. 

Linseed in small quantities, either whole or ground, raw 
or boiled, is sometimes given to sick horses. It is too nutri 
tious for a fevered horse, but is very useful for a cough, and 
it makes the skin loose and the coat glossy. Half a pint may 
be mixed with the usual feed every night. For a cough it 
should be boiled, and given in a bran mash, to which two or 
three ounces of coarse sugar may be added. 

Oil Cake, ground and given in the boiled food, when not very 
rich, consisting chiefly or entirely of roots, is much stronger 
than bran, and stronger, perhaps^ than oatmeal seeds. Two 
to four pounds per day is the usual allowance. It makes the 
hair glossy. Horses seem to tire of it soon, but the farmer 
will find it useful for helointr his horses through the winter. 



ARTICLES USED AS FOOD. 191 

H E:\rpsEED used to be given to racers a few days before 
running. It was supposed to be invigorating and " good for 
the wind." I believe it is not now employed, except occa- 
sionally to stallions, during the travelling season. Some give 
four or six ounces every night. 

Sago. — In the year 1839, this article was a good deal spo- 
ken of as an excellent food for horses. Mr. Ritchie, veteri- 
nary surgeon of Edinburgh, made some experiments with it, 
and detailed them in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. 
He tried it with only one horse. He gave daily three pounds 
of sago stirred into two gallons of boiling water ; and this 
quantity was divided into three feeds. After a few days he 
found that this feeding made the horse sweat more at his 
work. He then gave the sago nearly dry, or just moistened, 
by adding to it about four ounces of water ; and thus fed, the 
horse perspired no more than he had done upon oats and hay. 

I have no doubt but sago might be used partially as a sub- 
stitute for oats, and possibly it might, imder certain circum- 
stances, be used to the exclusion of other grain. But from 
my own experience of it on several horses, I found, 

1 . That no horse would eat it unmixed with other grain. 

2. That very few would eat it raw, even when mixed with 
oats. 

3. That none refused it when it was boiled with oats or 
beans. 

4. That it is not profitable if it costs more than twelve shil- 
lings per cwt., while oats are twenty shillings per boll. 

Sugar. — Mr. Black, veterinary surgeon of the 14th Light 
Dragoons, informed me that sugar was tried as an article of 
horses' food during the peninsular war. The experiment was 
made at the Brighton depot, upon ten horses, during a period 
of three months. Each got eight pounds per day at four ra- 
tions. They took to it very readily, and it was remarked 
that their coats became fine, smooth, and glossy. They got 
no grain, and only seven pounds of hay, instead of the ordi- 
nary allowance, which is twelve pounds. The sugar seemed 
to supply the place of grain so well, that it would probably 
have been given to the horses abroad ; but peace came, and 
the circumstances which rendered the use of sugar for grain 
desirable ceased. The horses returned to their usual diet ; 
but several of those who were the subjects of this experiment 
became crib-biters. [Sugar wants nitrogen, but abounds in 
carbon. It would not, therefore, answer as a horse food. 
The food must contain nitrogen to form muscle.] 



192 STABLE ECONOMY. 

That the sugar might not be appropriated to other purposes 
it was slightly scented with assafoetida, which did not pro- 
duce any apparent effect upon the horses. 

" Fruit, as pumpkins, apples, &c., and sweet potatoes in 
America, figs and chestnuts in Spain and Italy, apples in 
some parts of France, and numerous other fructified exotics,^ 
are occasionally employed as food for horses."* Horse 
Chestnuts, it is said, " would probably form a valuable article 
of medicinal food for horses. In Turkey the nuts are ground, 
and mixed with other food ; and they are regarded as a rem- 
edy for broken wind, and serviceable to horses troubled with 
coughs."! Haws, the fruit of the hawthorn, have been em- 
ployed by West, of Hampshire, as an article of food for farm- 
horses, with what profit I have not learned. " The people 
of Medjid feed their horses regularly on dates. At Deyrach, 
in the country of the Flassae, dates are mixed with the clover. 
Barley, however, is the most usual food in all parts of Ara- 
bia."t 

Flesh. — The structure of the horse does not seem adapted 
to the assimilation of animal food. But some seem to have 
no dislike to it ; and it is well to know that it may, to a cer- 
tain extent, supply the place of grain. I have seen them 
lick blood repeatedly and greedily. Bracy Clark says he has 
'* seen a well-attested account in a magazine, of a colt that 
was in the habit of A^siting a pantry window which looked 
into his paddock, and of stealing and eating mutton, beef, 
veal, and poultry. Pork he seemed to reject. In the East 
Indies, meat boiled to rags, to which is added some kinds of 
grain and butter, is made into balls and forced down the 
horse's throat. — Carpenter's Introduc. to the Wars of India. 
Also sheep's heads during a campaign are boiled for horses 
in that country." || 

" While at the stable of Mr. Mellings, of Wakefield, the 
groom would let me see a flesh-eating horse. He brought 
about a pound of roasted beef and as much raw bacon, which 
he warmed. I took away the horse, while the groom put the 
meat in one corner of the manger, and a feed of oats in the 
other. I put in the horse and directed his nose to the oats, 
out he darted from that to the bacon, which he greedily de- 
voured. He then ate his oats. The groom said this horse 

* Blaine's Vet. Outlines, p. 94. London, 1832. 

t Comp. Grazier, p. 529. 1833. ^ 

t Past and Present State of the English Racer. Hookham. 1836. 

IJ Clarke, Pharmacop. Equina. London, 1833. 



ARTICLES USED AS FOOD. 193 

would finish the bone of a leg of mutton in a few minutes, 
and that roasted meat was his favorite dish."* The wealthy 
people of Medjid frequently give flesh to their horses, raw as 
well as boiled, together with all the offals of the table. " 1 
knew a man at Hamah, in Syria, who assured me that he 
had often given his horses washed meat after a journey, to 
make them endure it with greater facility. The same person 
related to me, that, apprehensive of the governor of the town 
taking a liking to his favorite horse, he fed it for a fortnight 
entirely on roasted pork, which raised its mettle to such a 
height that it became absolutely unmanageable, and could no 
longer be an object of desire to the governor."! 

Fish. — " In Iceland, it is stated by Buftbn, that dried fish 
is made the food of horses ; and my friend William Bul- 
lock, senior, lately informed me that he saw them in the same 
practice in Norway. "| 

Eggs are sometimes given to stallions in the travelling sea- 
son, for exciting desire, and to other horses for producing a 
smooth coat. They are quite useless for either purpose, at 
least as they are given, only one or two at a time. If they 
are to do any good the horse would need a dozen of them, or 
thereabouts, I should think. One or two, however, can have 
no good effect. The egg is chipped, starred, as they call it, 
all round, and given raw, like a ball. 

Several, many horses have been lost by the egg sticking in 
the throat, and producing suffocation. If eggs must be given, 
let them be broken and mixed with a mash, or boiled hard 
and added to the grain. But I see no need for them in any 
shape. 

Milk. — In this country, milk is not used as an article of 
food for grown-up horses. Occasionally it is given to stallions 
in the covering season. A mash is made of milk, bran, and 
oil-cake, ground ; and in Ayrshire, whey is frequently given 
to stallions as a drink. It is supposed to be " amatory food." 
The Arabs, in traversing the desert are said to give their 
horses camel's milk when forage fails. Major Denham, 
speaking of some horses he met with among the Tiboos, says : 
" Two of them were very handsome, though small ; and on 
remarking their extreme fatness, I was not a little surprised 
to learn tfiat they were fed entirely on camel's milk, grain be- 

* The Veterinian, vol. v., p. 25. Letter from Mr. Garland, V. S. Wake 
field, 
t Past and Present State of the English Racer. 1836. 
X B. Clarke, Pharm. Eq. 

17 



194 STABLE ECONOMY. 

ing too scarce and valuable an article for the Tiboos to spare 
them. They drink it both sweet and sour ; and animals in 
higher condition I scarcely ever saw."* 

Mare^s Milk. — For the first six months of the young horse's 
life, his principal food is mare's milk. He begins to eat much 
sooner, but few are entirely weaned before this time. Farm 
mares are usually put to gentle work two or three weeks after 
parturition. Her work should be moderate, and her diet sub- 
stantial. She is often treated as if work could have no in- 
fluence on the milk. When she has much to do, the milk is 
neither good nor abundant, and the foal is half-starved. The 
foal is sometimes permitted to follow his dam to the field, 
where he may occasionally suckle her. This renders the 
foal familiar, and at an early age reconciles him to subjection, 
and it prevents engorgement of the udder. Bad weather, or 
the nature of the mare's work, may forbid the practice. When 
the mare comes home, the foal is put to suck her. In some 
places, the milk is previously stripped on to the ground, and 
the udder bathed with cold water, or vinegar and water. This 
is not necessary. It is supposed that the milk is injured and 
pernicious when the mare is overheated ; but, in the first 
place, her work should never be so severe as to overheat her ; 
and, in the second, the milk is not apparently altered when 
she is. Hard work will diminish the quantity of milk, and 
render it less nutritious, but it will do no more. [Hard work 
diminishes the carbonaceous portion of the food ; it contains 
less sugar of milk and less oil.] If the foal be withheld till 
the udder be gorged and distended, a little inflammation will 
take place, and the milk will be bad. In such case it is 
proper to draw off a portion before the foal is put to it ; and it 
may also be proper to bathe the udder with cold water. But 
to empty it or to bathe it merely because the mare has been 
perspiring, is absurd ; and to neglect both mare and foal till 
the udder needs such treatment, betrays very bad manage- 
ment. 

Sometimes a mare, especially with her first foal, will not 
permit sucking. She requires to be held, to have the udder 
rubbed with the hand and stripped. Hold her by the head 
and keep her steady till the foal is satisfied. Do so five or 
six times a day. On the third day, or thereabouts, she usually 
begins to perform her duty without interference. In general, 
the mare is merely restless ; she will not stand quiet till the 
foal suckles her ; but sometimes she is ill-natured or vicious 
•.Denham's Travels in Africa. 



ARTICLES USED AS FOOD. 195 

If she strike at the foal, threaten her with the lash, and hold 
up one of her fore-feet. If she continue obstinate and resists 
the repeated efforts of the foal so long that he is likely to get 
exhausted, put the twitch on the mare's nose. But, if possi- 
ble, she must be managed without this, and every time the 
foal is to suckle her, she must be patiently tried before apply- 
ing the twitch. It is not good to meddle with the foal by way 
of assisting or directing him to the udder. He may be very 
awkward, but he sabn learns. It is sufficient to control the 
mare, and this often tequires a great deal of patience and 
perseverance. After the foal has been permitted to suckle 
her, she is reconciled to it in a day or two, and may afterward 
prove a very good nurse. Confinement in a dark loose box 
sometimes renders her kinder. 

Unless the mare be very obstinate, or the foal very weak 
and awkward, no cow's milk should be given to it. If its 
hunger be appeased by drinks, it will make no attempt to 
suckle, and it is only by constantly persevering with the 
mother that she can be brought to her duty. 

Cow's Milk. — Should the mare die, or become unfit, from 
sickness or a diseased udder, to suckle her foal, it must be 
fed with cow's milk. If a week or two old, it may be fed 
from a pail in the same way as calves. The man puts his 
hand into a pail of milk, with his fingers projecting above the 
surface. The calf or foal seizes the fingers, and sucks up the 
milk, which should always be new and warm from the cow. 
In a little while the young animal learns to drink it. If so 
young or stupid that it can not be fed in this way, the milk 
must be poured into its mouth. Take a teapot, or teakettle 
with a small spout. Surround the spout with three or four folds 
of linen cloth, sufficient to make it soft, but not too large. 
Place this prepared spout in the foal's mouth, and it will suck 
the milk from the vessel. An article might be made for the 
purpose, of tin. The aperture in the spout should not be much 
more than an eighth of an inch in calibre, otherwise the milk 
will come faster than the foal can swallow it. Let the spout 
rise from the bottom of the vessel, so that the air can not get 
into it when the foal is sucking. 

I do not know how much milk a foal will consume. It 
should be given four or five times a day. 

Weaning. — When the foal is to be taken from the udder, he 
is either shut up in a \o(^ house by himself, or turned to 
pasture ; in either case his cry must not be heard by the dam. 
When within hearing, both become fretful, the one unwilling 



196 STABLE ECON'OMY. 

to work, and the other refusing to eat. Once or twice a day 
they rejoin each other for ?»• short time, in order that the foa. 
may empty the udder, and not be suddenly deprived of its 
natural food. When the foal is removed all at once, as by 
death, the mare's udder should be stripped once or twice a 
day, for perhaps a week ; but at no time need it be quite 
drained. Spare diet, harder work, or milk physic, will di- 
minish the secretion of milk, and one or another should be 
employed, if the mare must give up nursinfl w-hile her milk is 
abundant. 

In connexion with foals, I will just observe here, though 
out of place, that the young animal should be well fed from 
the day he is born. A starved foal or colt is almost never 
well made when he arrives at maturity. He is always, as 
stablemen say, a weed; and though bad shapes, such as light 
carcass and spare quarters, are not supposed to have any con- 
nexion with the feeding, I am well persuaded that a poor diet 
is a common cause of them. 



COMPOSITION OF FOOD. 

The articles used as food for horses have been submitted 
to chymical examination, with the purpose of ascertaining the 
amount of nutritive matter yielded by each in proportion to its 
bulk. 

The Nutritive Matter of plants consists of starch, sugar, 
gluten, and extract. These four substances exist together in 
varying proportions. In some vegetables, as carrots, the 
sugar is most abundant ; in many, as in the different kinds of 
grain, starch predominates. Gluten abounds in grain and 
pulse, while it is deficient in the most of grasses. Extract is 
wanting in grain and several of the roots, while beans, peas, 
herbage, plants, and grasses, possess a considerable quantity. 

It is not known whether a certain quantity of any one of 
these substances will produce the same effect as an equal 
quantity of any other ; starch and sugar, though both nutritive 
articles, are very different in many respects, and it is not like- 
ly that the one can perform all the functions of the other. 
But this subject, so far as I know, has not been put to trial. 
I am disposed to believe that each of the nutritive matters 
performs its own duty ; that life may be maintained for a time 
by any one of them ; that certain c||tnbinations will produce 
results different from other combinations ; and that it is very 
desirable to know the power of each individual substance, and 



COMPOSITION OF FOOD. 197 

the power of every possible combination, which must vary ac- 
cording to the number of the nutritive matters, and their re- 
lative proportions. 

The animal economy exists in very different states at dif- 
ferent times. It is almost certain that in all states it demands 
and consumes more than one of the nutritive articles ; but it 
is probable that in particular states there is a predominating 
demand for sugar, in another for starch, and so on. From 
one or two circumstances, it would appear as if sugar were 
useful or necessary for making fat, while a large quantity 
may be pernicious if severe labor forbid the formation of fat. 
Diabetes may perhaps be explained upon this supposition. 
Mowburnt hay, which contains a large quantity of sugar, may 
be eaten with impunity by idle or half-worked horses. It is 
said to make them fat. But in the coaching-stables it is a 
destructive poison. The sugar enters the circulation, but the 
system can not appropriate it, and the kidneys have to labor 
incessantly in order to eject it with the urine, a large quantity 
of which must be made to carry off the sugar. This is en- 
tirely a conjectural explanation, the truth or error of which 
can not be proved without experiments. 

If it were possible to learn what combinations are merely 
fattening, what invigorating ; what producing bone, what 
flesh, what milk ; and what the signs which indicate a demand 
for one substance more than for another, the feeding of horses 
and other animals would become a science. It is possible 
that we often err in giving that which is rejected at the time, 
but which might be highly acceptable in some other state of 
the system. If we knew, for instance, what combination of 
gluten, starch, and sugar, were invigorating and what fatten- 
ing, it would be absurd to give the former to an ox while pre- 
paring for the butcher, or the latter to a racer while preparing 
for the course. The ox wants no vigor, and the racer wants 
no fat. That which is not wanted may be inconvenient, or 
it may be rejected as useless, the system of the animal not 
demanding it, or his habits forbidding its appropriation. It 
will be long, however, ere the feeding of live stock becomes 
a matter of such accuracy, and perhaps it is not attainable. 
But it may be good to remen.ber that what the chymists term 
nutritive matter, is composed of four substances, which do not 
each produce the same effect ; that in combination, it is prob- 
able the effects vary according to the proportions in which 
the substances operate together ; and that, in particular states 

17* 



198 STABLE ECONOMY. 

of the system, one or two may be in greater request than the 
others. 

Besides the Nutritive Matter, food contains other 
substances. Roots, and herbage undried, contain a large 
quantity of water ; and new grain and new hay have more 
than the old. In many articles there is much woody fibre, 
which passes through the stomach and bowels like inert 
matter, having no nutritious nor any medical property. This, 
however, is useful ; for, to be in health, it is necessary that 
the stomach and bowels suffer a moderate degree of distention, 
which is most cheaply, and perhaps most safely produced by 
the woody fibre. Bean straw, I believe, furnishes more in 
proportion to its bulk than any other fodder : grains and roots 
have not much. Hay stands next to straw. It is probable 
that several kinds of food, possibly all the kinds, contain some 
ingredients neither inert nor nutritious, but still very useful. 
To digest the food, the stomach must be in a particular state ; 
the food itself excites that state ; but it is not likely that every 
portion or ingredient of the food is equally able to rouse the 
digestive process. In some articles a bitter ingredient is 
found, which is supposed to stimulate the stomach, and other 
portions of the digestive apparatus to action. It has been 
termed. 

Bitter Extract. — It is distinguished from all other in- 
gredients chiefly by its bitter taste. In some plants it is found 
in great abundance, in some others, not at all, or only in cer- 
tain stages of their growth. It maintains some relation to the 
amount of nutriment. Those plants which have little nutri- 
tious matter have much of the bitter principle, and grain has 
most before it is ripe. 

" It seems to be as essential to herbivorous, as salt is to 
carnivorous animals. It acts as a natural stimulant. 'Several 
experiments have proved that it passes through the stomach 
and bowels without suffering any diminution in quantity, or 
any change in composition. No cattle will thrive upon food 
which does not contain a portion of this bitter principle. The 
researches of the late Mr. Sinclair, gardener to the Duke of 
Bedford, fully established this fact. As recorded in the Hor- 
tus Gramineus Woburnensis, they show that, when sheep are 
fed exclusively upon yellow turnips, which contain almost no 
bitter matter, they instinctively seek and devour any proven- 
der which does. If unable to find it, they sicken and die." 

[A Table of the Comparative Value of different 
Kinds of Fodder for Cattle has been published by M 



COMPOSITION OF FOOD. 



199 



Antoine, in France, and is the result of experiments made by 
the principal agriculturists on the continent, Thaer, Gemer- 
hausen, Petro, Rieder, Weber, Krantz, Andre, Block, De 
Dombasle, Boussingault, ]Meyer, Plotovv, Pohl, Smee, Crud, 
Schvvertz, Pabst. It is unnecessary to give the figures which 
each of these experimentalisis have set down, but the mean 
of their experiments being taken, there is more chance of the 
result being near the truth. Allowance must be made for the 
different qualities of the same food on different soils and dif- 
ferent seasons. In very dry summers the same weight of 
any greeii food will be much more nourishing than in a drip- 
ping season. So likewise any fodder raised on a rich dry 
soil will be more nourishing than on a poor wet one. The 
standard of comparison is the best upland meadow-hay, cut 
as the flower expands, and properly made and stacked, with- 
out much heating ; in short, hay of the best quality. With 
respect to hay, such is the difference in value, that if 100 
lbs. of the best is used, it will require 120 lbs. of a second 
quality to keep the same stock as well, 140 lbs. of the third, 
and so on, till very coarse and hard hay, not well made, will 
only be of half the value, and not so fit for cows or store cat- 
tle, even when given in double the quantity. While good 
hay alone will fatten cattle, inferior hay will not do so with 
out other food. 



100 lbs. of good hay is equal in nourish- 
ment to 

Lattermath hay 

hay-made Clover, when the 
blossom is completely de- 
veloped 

Ditto, before the blossom ex- 
pands. 

Clover, 2d crop, is equa' in 
nourishment to 

Lucerne hay 

Saintfoin hay 

Tare hay 

Spergula arvensis, dried 

Clover hay, after the seed 

Green clover 

Vetches or tares, green 

Green Indian corn 

Green spergula 

stems and leaves Jsrusalem 
artichoke 

Cow-cabbage leaves 

Beet-root leaves 

Potato halm 

Shelter wheat- straw 

Rye straw 

Oat straw 

Peas halm 
• Vetch halm 

Bean halm 
' Buckwheat straw 
' Dried stalks of Jerusalem ar- 
tichokeii 



400 lbs. of Dried stalks of Indian corn 



102 
90 



98 

98 
89 
91 
90 
146 
410 
457 
275 
425 
225 

541 
600 
300 
374 
442 
195 
153 
159 
140 
195 
170 



250 " 


" Millet straw 


201 " 


" Raw potatoes 


175 " 


" Boiled do. 


220 " 


" White Silesian beet 


339 " 


" Mangel-wurzel 


504 " 


" Turnips 


276 " 


" Carrots 


287 " 


" Cohlkahs 


308 " 


" Swedish turnips 


350 " 


" Do. do. with the leaves o 


54 " 


*' Rye 


45 " 


" Wheat 


54 " 


♦' Barley 


59 " 


" Oats 


50 " 


" Vetches 


45 " 


" Peas 


45 " 


" Beans 


64 " 


" Buckwheat 


57 " 


" Indian corn 


32 " 


" French Beans, dried 


47 " 


" Chestnuts 


68 " 


" Acorns 


50 " 


" Horse-chestnuts 


i 62 " 


" Sun-flower seed 


69 " 


" Linseed cake 


105 " 


" Wheat bran 


109 " 


" Rye bran 


167 " 


" Wheat, peas, and oat chaff 


179 " 


" Rye and Barley chaff 


73 '•' 


" Dried lime-tree leaves 


1 83 " 


" " oak leaves 


I 67 " 


" «' Canada poplar leaves* 



SOO STABLE ECONOMY. 

Lattermath hay is good for cows, not for horses. The 
second cut is generally considered as inferior in nourishment 
to the first. New hay is not wholesome. At Paris, when a 
load of 1,000 kilos is bargained for, the seller must deliver — 
if between haymaking and October 1, 1,300 kilos — from Oc- 
tober 1 to April 1, 1,100 kilos — and after April, only 1,000. 
This is fair, and allows for loss of weight in drying. In Lon- 
don a load of new hay is 20 cwt., of old hay, only 18 cwt. 

The dried halm of the trifolium incarnatum, after the 
seed is ripe, is little better than straw. Clover, lucerne, 
and saintfoin, are generally supposed to lose three fourths 
of their weight in drying ; but in general they lose more, 
especially in moist climates, where the sap is more di- 
luted. When touched by the frost, they become very :m- 
wholesome, and should never be given to cattle except quits 
dry. 

Straw is, on the whole, but poor food, and unless cattle 
have something better with it, they will not keep in any con- 
dition ; when given with turnips or other roots, straw corrects 
their watery nature, and is very useful ; cut into chaflf it is 
very good for sheep when fed on turnips and oil-cake, and 
when newly thrashed is as good nearly as hay. By a judi- 
cious mixture of different kinds of food, a more economical 
mode of feeding may be substituted for a more expensive one, 
and the same result obtained. The value of straw depends 
much on the soil ; a very clean crop will not give so nourish- 
ing straw as one containing many succulent weeds. Peas 
and vetch halm are superior to straw, especially when cut 
into chaff; it is by some thought equal to hay. The same 
may be said of bean halm not left too long in the field, and 
cut before it is completely dry. Buckwheat halm is of little 
value : it is thought unwholesome if given to sheep. 

16 lbs. of raw, or 14 lbs. of boiled potatoes will allow a 
diminution of 8 lbs of hay. 

Turnips will feed store pigs, but they will not fatten on 

them. Carrots and parsnips are excellent for horses, and, 

when boiled, will fatten hogs. Ruta-baga is liked by horses : 

it makes their coats fine, but must not be given in too great 

. quantity, or it will gripe them. 

Feeding. — A certain quantity of food is required to keep 
an animal alive and in health : this is called his necessary 
ration of food : if he has more he will gain flesh, or give milk 
or wool. 

A horse usually requires 2^ per cent, of his live weight in 



rREPARATION OF FOOD. 201 

tiay per day if he has no other food ; if he works, 3 per cent. : 
an ox, 2 per cent. ; if he works, 2^ per cent. : a milch cow, 
3 per cent. : a fatting ox, 5 per cent, at first ; 4i per cent, 
when half fat ; and only 4 per cent, when fat ; or 41 on the 
an average. Sheep grown up take 3-J- per cent, of their 
weight in hay per day, to keep in store condition. 

Growing animals require more food, and shoyld never be 
stinted.* 

The lahle below shows the relative value of different ar- 
ticles of food, as ascertained by practice ; good meadow hay 
being taken at 100. 



Hay ... 


J 00 


Carrots - 


- 


- 250 to 300 


Clover hay 


- 80 to 100 


Turnips - 


- 


500 


Green clover - 


- 450 to 500 


Cabbage - 


• 


- 200 to 300 


Wheat straw - 


- 400 to 500 


Peas and beans 


- 


- .30 to 50 


Barley straw - 


- 200 to 400 


Wlieat - 


. 


- 50 to 60 


Oat straw 


- 200 to 4(10 


Barley - 


- 


- 50 to 60 


Pea straw 


- 100 to 150 


Oats 


. 


- 40 to 70 


Potatoes 


200 


Indian corn - 


. 


50 


Old potatoes - 


400 


Oil cake - 


- 


- 20 to 40 



The above table represents the average results from a num- 
ber of experiments made in France and Holland.] 

PREPARATION OF FOOD. 

Some of the articles used as food frequently undergo prepa- 
•ation before they are given : they are dried, boiled, bruised, 
.-ut, and so forth. 

One object is to economize the consumption ; another to 
render the food more easily eaten ; a third to correct some 
unwholesome quality ; a fourth to give it a new property ; a 
fifth to ensure complete mastication ; a sixth to ensure delib- 
erate ingestion ; and a seventh to preserve the food. These 
will be best illustrated by considering the processes to which 
the food is submitted. 

Drying need hardly be mentioned. Its principal object is 
to preserve the food. Besides depriving it of a large quan- 
tity of water, it seems, in some cases, to alter the article in 
other respects. New oats are purgative ; those which are 
kiln-dried are diuretic. The drying in this case gives a new 
property, which is not beneficial, but can not, perhaps, be 
avoided. If the change were efi*ected entirely by taking 
away water, the food should be restored to its original state 
by moistening it. This does not happen. Drying renders 
grain and fodder constipating ; new grain and new hay are 
always laxative. Grass, when converted into hay, suffers 
fermentation, and loses more than half its weight. According 
* Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc. 



203 STABLE ECONOMY. 

o Sinclair, 7,829 pounds of rye grass lost 4 494 in drying 
It becomes still drier as it becomes older. 

Cutting the Fodder. — Hay, straw, and grass, are some- 
times cut into short pieces. A portion of this is mixed 
with grain, and another portion is given by itself, instead of 
rack hay ; in a few cases the grain is given oftener than usual, 
and divided among all the allotted quantity of fodder. ChafF- 
cutting is general on the continent. In this country it pre- 
v^ails only in large establishments, and not in all of these. 
When the fodder is cut, it is tei^med chaff, and the cutting-ma- 
chine is termed a chaff-cutter. 

The Chaff-Cutter varies ii power and in construction. 
Some are worked by the hand, others are driven by a horse 
or an ass, a few by steam, and a few by water. Some have 
the cutting-knives attached to the fly-wheel, and others have 
them mounted on a skeleton cylinder. Models are to be seen 
in most of the agricultural museums ; and the machines 
themselves are kept at the makers of agricultural implements. 
With an ordinary chaff-cutter two men may easily cut 200 
stones of hay per week, working ten hours per day. One 
feeds, and another turns the knives ; each changing place 
with the other as he gets tired. At the same, or less cost, a 
much larger quantity can be cut by using horse-power. The 
chaff, whether of hay or straw, is all cut very short, perhaps 
from a fourth to a half inch ; the shorter the better, if it is to 
be mixed with grain. 

The Utility of Cutting has been much exaggerated. There 
are five or six advantages alleged to be gained by cutting, 
two of which are in favor of the horse ; the others in favor of 
economy. By cutting the hay it is said that waste is pre- 
vented ; that mastication of the grain is ensured ; that dam- 
aged provender is consumed ; that chaff is easily eaten ; that 
it is easily and accurately distributed ; and that horses like a 
mixture of chaff and grain better than grain alone. All this 
requires some elucidation. 

Prevention of Waste. — It has been said that cutting the 
hay is attended with a saving, according to some, of one 
fourth ; or, according to others, of a third, and even a half, in 
the whole consumption : that is to say, a stone of chaff will 
go as far as two stones of hay. This is very like nonsense. 
But the accounts, though different, are probably all true. 
Much may be saved, yet all the saving must not be attributed 
to cutting, but to greater care of the hay after it is cut. The 
chaff is no ^ore nutritious than the hay ; the horse needs as 



PREPARATION OF FOOD. 203 

much, and will eat as much of the one as of the other ; but a 
smaller quantity being given at a time, the horse has it not in 
his power to waste so much. The chaff is supplied in lim- 
ited measure ; it is put into the manger ; if the horse is not 
hungry it lies there till he is. But it is different with hay 
The rack often receives as much at one time as might serve 
two days. After the horse has appeased his hunger, he amu- 
ses himself by pulling the hay among his feet, and, selecting 
such portions as suit his palled appetite, the remainder is 
wasted. All this is lost through carelessness. As much 
chaff might be wasted, but it is not so easy, not so conveni- 
ent, there is no inducement to give so much at one time ; and 
the horse can not so readily destroy that which he is not dis- 
posed to eat. If the hay could be given in measured quanti- 
ties like the chaff, and the horse prevented from wasting any, 
cutting, it is obvious, would effect no saving whatever. This 
can be done well enough. The- hay can be weighed and 
supplied in small quantities ; by giving it oftener than usual 
— no more at a time than the horse will eat — none will be 
lost. There would be additional trouble in doing so ; but the 
trouble of cutting and serving chaff is greater. 

Mastication of the Grain Insured. — By mixing chaff with 
the oats and beans, these articles must be broken down before 
they can be swallowed. They can not be entirely separated 
from the chaff; and the chaff is too sharp to be swallowed 
without a good deal of mastication. In grinding the chaff, 
the horse must grind the grain. This is the most important 
use of chaff. Many horses swallow both oats and beans 
without chewing them. That which is unbroken passes 
through the body entire, and, affording no nutriment, is lost. 
Chaff prevents this. Still, when the grain is bruised before 
it is given, chaff may be dispensed with. The horse might 
swallow much of it as he received it, yet it would be digest- 
ed ; we rarely, almost never, see broken beans or broken oats 
among the evacuations. Once broken, they must be dis- 
solved before they escape. Nevertheless, if mastication and 
digestion of the grain are to be promoted, it is a better prac- 
tice to mingle chaff with it than to bruise it. 

Deliberate Ingestion Insured. — Many horses swallow their 
grain in great haste ; when much is eaten, this \n dangerous. 
The stomach is filled, overloaded, before it has time to make 
preparation for acting upon its contents. The food ferments, 
and the horse takes colic, which is often fatal. By adding 
ihaff to his grain, the horse must take more time to eat it 



204 STABLE ECONOMY. 

Satiety takes place before the stomach is overloaded, and 
time is given for the commencemem of digestion, before fer- 
mentation can occur. In this way chaff is very useful, espe- 
cially where the horses receive large meals after lonsj fasts. 

Consumption of Damaged Provender PromoUd. — When the 
hay is not of the best quality, the bad is rejected and lost ; 
but by converting it into chaff, the horse must either eat the 
whole or leave the whole. He can make no selection. This 
is a favorite argument, and often urged on the side of cutting. 

When the fodder is damaged in only a slight degree, the 
mowburnt or musty hay may be eaten by some horses with 
impunity ; and, to make them eat it, they may have it cut 
down and mixed with a better article. But this will not do 
for horses in constant and laborious employment. In coach- 
ing stables, the hay, if cut into chaff, must all be of the best 
quality ; if bad, it is cheaper to convert it into litter than to 
make the horses eat it. If eaten, the horses are in a manner 
poisoned ; if rejected they are starved. The bad being mixed 
with the good, the horse has no power of selection. He eata 
some, but he does not eat so much as if it were all good ; 
and his work requires all that he can eat of the very best. 

Chaff quickly eaten. — It is eaten in less time than an equal 
quantity of hay. For old horses, having bad teeth, and for 
those that work all day, it is desirable that the food be easily 
eaten, in order that they may have as much rest as possible. 
When the hay is given long, the horse has to do with his 
teeth all that is done by the machine when it is made into 
chaff. The time and labor saved to him is not a great deal 
perhaps half an hour, or, at the most, a whole hour, makes all 
the difference, supposing the hay easily taken from the rack 
and all so good that the horse need lose no time in selection 
Horses having bad teeth, particularly heavy draught-horses 
seldom eat a large allowance of fodder. Their teeth are so 
ineffective that the jaws tire -before the horse is satisfied 
These, under all circumstances, except when out of work 
should have both grain and fodder broken down. 

But for horses that perform their daily work in two hours 
and perhaps in less time, it is not an advantage to have the 
food easily and quickly eaten. From the long time they 
stand in the stable, these horses require something to engage 
their attention. They are apt to get troublesome, pawing the 
ground, breaking loose, eating the woodwork and the litter, 
and teazing their neighbors. A little hay, in a close-sparred 
rack, gives them something to do. As they have plenty of 



PREPARATION OF FOOD. 20^ 

spare time it is needless to cut their food, merely to save 
their time. To give chaff for the purpose of insuring masti- 
cation of the grain, is another affair ; all horses should have 
sufficient for this purpose. 

Accurate Distribution obtained. — Chaff is easily weighed 
or measured. The allotted quantity can be served to within 
an ounce. Hay also can be given quite as exactly, but it is 
not so easy. The difference is so insignificant, and there 
are so very few cases in which a very accurate distribution 
of fodder is necessary, that it would be folly to cut it merely 
for this purpose. 

The Mixture preferred. — It has been said, that after horses 
have been accustomed to feeding on grain and chaff mixed, 
they prefer it to oats or beans without chaff. This is untrue. 
He who said it must have been misinformed. 

Objections to Chaff. — It has been urged that the cost of 
converting the hay into chaff is greater than the grain ; tha. 
some horses will not thrive without an allowance of rack fod- 
der ; that the horse must be often fed, otherwise the chaff 
will be wasted as much as hay. 

The first of these objections may have some truth in it, but 
the assertion requires limitation. The cost of the cutting 
machine is always spoken of as a great matter itself. It va- 
ries in price from three to six or more pounds. In a small 
establishment, containing, perhaps, twenty horses, the grain 
that would be saved by mixing it with chaff, would soon pay 
the cost of a small machine ; and as it is not necessary to 
bruise the grain, the cost of that process is avoided. The 
saving of grain, therefore, pays the machine, and the cost of 
that article should not be included, except where only one or 
two horses are kept. 

But to cut all the fodder may, in many cases, be too costly 
a practice. Heavy draught-horses consume a great deal. 
Some may be saved by cutting it, yet, perhaps, not sufficient 
to pay the cost of cutting. Much depends upon the care of 
the stablemen. If they Avill give the hay often, and in such 
quantities that none will be wasted, there is no need to cut 
more than enough to mingle with the grain. In such a case 
it would be a loss to cut all the fodder. But such care can 
not always be obtained. 

The cost of cutting may be calculated. If it be twenty 
shillings per week, the owner has only to inquire whether 
good hay to that amount be wasted. He can easily ascertain 
how long a certain quantity serves a certain number of horses 

18 



t06 STABLE ECONOMY. 

The allowance for horses of different kinds varies from eight 
to twenty pounds per day. Some will eat more, but others 
will eat less. Taking the whole, he will find how much 
more hay is consumed than the horses should eat. When it 
is not necessary to employ additional men to cut the hay, that 
makes a difference ; some portion of it is always saved by con- 
verting it into chaff, but the quantity will depend upon the dis- 
position of the horses to waste, and the care of the stableman 
in preventing waste. The cost of cutting that which is to 
mingle with the grain is not great. There is always some Dne 
about the place having half an hour to spare for this purpose 

Some horses will not thrive without an allowance of rack 
fodder. This is positively asserted by men who have tried 
cutting very extensively. It may be so ; but I have never met 
with any very clear proof of it. They say that horses will 
leave the chaff before them, to devour the same hay uncut, 
and I have seen them do so, though I can not understand it. 
The chaff ought to be as acceptable as the hay. Perhaps the 
circumstance might be attributed to the use of damaged hay, 
When cut into chaff the horse may refuse it, and yet seem to 
eat it uncut. He takes the good and rejects the i3ad. With 
chaff he has no choice. With horses, unaccustomed to this 
mode of feeding, and long used to the other, the habit of tear- 
ing hay from the rack, and selecting the most esteemed por- 
tions, may perhaps have become a source of gratification. If 
there be any, however, who will not thrive as well upon chaff 
as upon hay, the number must be very small. At first, the 
horse may not feed so heartily, but, in general, this happens 
for only a short time. 

When the fodder is all cut, the horse must be often fed. 
If he gets more than he is disposed to eat, he soon learns to 
shake it up and turn it over till he extracts all the grain. In 
doing so he soils the chaff, makes it wet, and the moisture 
spoils it in two or three hours. The horse will not eat this. 
At next feeding hour another allowance is added to that which 
was left ; and a horse is induced to feed, but he does not feed 
heartily. The only remedy lies either in giving less at a time, 
or in giving none at the next feeding hour, when it is found 
that the preceding allowance has not been finished ; or, after 
the horse is done feeding, that which he leaves may be taken 
away. All this care is seldom bestowed, especially by strap- 
pers. Chaff-feeding does require almost or quite as much 
care to prevent waste as hay-feeding. This is not denied even 
by the strongest advocates of the system. Without care the 



PREPARATION OF FOOD, 207 

chaff mixture is wasted, and the horses are cloyed, thrown off 
their feed ; having corn always before them, they never ob- 
tain a sharp appetite. 

Then, to sum up this matter, which seems to be very ill un- 
derstood, it appears. 

That, where the stablemen are careful, waste of fodder is 
diminished, though not prevented. 

That where the racks are good, careful stablemen may pre- 
vent nearly all waste of fodder, without cuttmg it. 

That an accurate distribution of fodder is not a very impor- 
tant object. 

That no horse seems to like his corn the better for being 
mingled with chafl'. 

That, among half-starved horses, chaff-cutting promotes the 
consumption of damaged fodder. 

That full-fed horses, rather than eat the mixture of sound 
and unsound, will reject the whole, or eat less than their work 
demands. 

That chaff is more easily eaten than hay; that this is an 
advantage to old horses, and others working all day ; a disad- 
vantage when the horses stand long in the stable. 

That chaff ensures complete mastication and deliberate in- 
gestion of the grain ; that it is of considerable and of most im- 
portance in this respect ; that all the fodder need not be min- 
gled with the grain, one pound of chaff being sufficient to in- 
sure the mastication and slow ingestion of four pounds of grain. 

That the cost of cutting all the fodder, especially for heavy 
horses, is repaid only where the hay is dear, and wasted in 
large quantities. 

That, among hard-working horses, bad fodder should never 
be cut. 

Mixing. — When a number of articles having different prop- 
erties are to be mingled together, some trouble must be taken 
to mix them equally. I often see beans, barley, bran, and 
chaff, thrown into a bucket hardly large enough to contain 
them. An attempt is always made to stir them up and min- 
gle one with another ; but cither from the laziness of the man, 
or from the want of proper utensils, the attempt frequently 
fails. Hence some of the horses are fed on that which is too 
rich, and they are surfeited, while others receive little but 
chaff, and are starved. The mixing vessel ought to be large 
enough to hold double the quantity ever put into it. 

The whole of each article ought not to be put in at once. 
Suppose boiled beans, boiled barley, chaff, and roots, or bran. 



808 STABLE ECONOMY. 

are to be mixed ; the beans, barley, and roots, are boiled to 
gether ; a measure of chaff is thrown into the tub, then a 
measure of the boiled food, then a measure of bran, and lastly 
a measure of the boiled liquor. These are well mingled by 
means of a wooden spade ; another measure of each article 
is then added, and the whole again incorporated together. 
In this way the man proceeds, adding the ingredients to each 
other in small quantities, and mixing them thoroughly at each 
addition, till a quantity taken from one part of the vessel is 
quite the same as a quantity taken from any other part of it. 

In mixing dry grain with chafl", the same plan is to be fol- 
lowed. If seven bushels of chafT, one of barley, one of 
beans, and five of oats, are to be mingled together, mix the 
grain and pulse first, in six or seven layers, and toss them to* 
gether with a wooden shovel ; then mix one bushel of chafl 
with one of the mixed grain ; in another place mix a like quan- 
tity, and after all is divided in this manner into seven parcels, 
each containing an equal quantity of each article, throw the 
whole into one heap, and toss it over two or three times. Un- 
less the ingredients be thoroughly incorporated, the horses 
can not be equally served. There is error in mixing very 
much, and also in mixing very little. The man may soon dis- 
cover in what quantities he can manage to make the most equal 
mass. 

Washing. — Turnips, carrots, potatoes, and other roots, are 
generally washed before they are given. In some places, 
however, they are given with the mud about them, which I 
think is not a good practice. It is an unpleasant thing to hear 
the sand and mud grating on the horse's teeth, and it can not 
surely be very agreeable to him. When the roots are boiled 
without washing, a dirty mess is produced having little re- 
semblance to food. It has been alleged that the earth k 
wholesome : but I rather think this is a discovery made by 
laziness. On some soils, the mud, when adhering to the roots 
in considerable quantity, has an effect slightly laxative. It 
may be desirable that the food should occasionally, but I 
should think not constantly, possess this property. I have 
never seen the mud do either good or ill. The horse at first 
seems soon tired of it, but at last he eats quite heartily. The 
sand may perhaps wear the teeth a little too fast. 

The best machine for washing roots, such as potatoes and 
small turnips, is a sparred cylinder, set in a trough which is 
filled with water. A door in the cylinder admits the roots 
it is placed on axles, and turned by a crank. 



PREPAHAflON OF FOOD. 209 

Hay seed, when used as food, should always be washed. 
It contains a great deal of sand and dust, which are easily 
separated by throwing the seed into a tub of water, and stir- 
ring it about with the hand. The seed swims and the impu- 
rities fall to the bottom. To get rid of the water, skim off 
the seed into a sieve, or a tub having a perforated bottom, and 
let it drain there for ten minutes. 

Bruising. — Grain and pulse are broken, or bruised, by pas- 
sing them between a pair of metal rollers. The only object 
of this practice is to insure the digestion of these seeds, which 
do not resist solution when their husk is broken. If the horse 
would masticate his food sufficiently, there would be no need 
to bruise it ; But some have bad teeth, and others feed in 
haste ; and by both much of the grain is swallowed entire, 
and passes through the digestive apparatus without yielding 
any nutriment. The skin which covers oats, beans, and some 
other seeds, seems to resist the action of the stomach. It 
will not dissolve, or at least it is evacuated before it is dis- 
solved, and it prevents solution of the meal which it covers. 
In some horses, the quantity that passes off" entire is very con- 
siderable : it has been estimated at one sixth of all that is 
eaten. But the quantity is not certain ; and there is seldom 
such a loss as this. Still the saving effected by preventing it 
pays for the cost of preventing it. If the husk of the seed 
be broken, the farina will be dissolved. 

There are hand-mills of different sizes for bruising grain. 
Beans are seldom submitted to the process. Horses are not 
so apt to swallow the entire beans ; yet some do, especially 
those having bad teeth. There are mills for bruising beans, 
[also for grinding corn with the cob, oats, and other small 
grain]. 

In this town the grain is generally bruised at the public 
mills. But when only three or four horses are kept, it is bet- 
ter to have the bruising performed at home. The bruised 
grain rapidly absorbs moisture and becomes musty. A hand- 
mill furnishes it always fresh ; enough for only one or two 
days should be prepared at a time. [In the drier climate of 
America, meal will keep sweet for weeks or months.] 

Bruised grain mixes readily with chaff, and it saves an old 
horse some trouble. It has little more to recommend it. If 
the horses be young, the addition of chaff will compel them 
to do that which is done by the mill, and they are able enough 
to do it. But when chaff is not used, the grain should be 
bruised for all kinds of horses. 

18* 



210 STABLE ECONOMY. 

Grinding the grain has been recommended for facilitating 

Us digestion ; but wliether it be more rapidly digested, oi 
whether it be right to make it so, is yet unknown. When 
ground grain is given without admixture, the horse appears to 
have some difficulty in managing it. The meal requires 
much saliva, but very little mastication. The secretion of 
saliva is stimulated, and its supply regulated by the act of 
mastication. Hence the food that require^the most moisture, 
should also require the most mastication. With ground grain 
this order is reversed, the horse fills his mouth with flour too 
dry to swallow, and too fine to produce sai.va. He always 
requires more time to consume a pound of oatmeal than a 
pound of oats ; and many will not, or can not eat a whole 
feed of it. When put into the manger in a heap, the broken 
husks run down the sides and accumulate ; the portion having 
most of the husk is eaten before the flour ; this shows which 
the horse likes best. Flour or meal, however, is a useful ad- 
dition to boiled food ; and when given with chaff it may be 
better than alone. 

Grinding, I beUeve, is always performed at the meal-mills. 
When the grain is soft or new, it is previously dried or baked. 
The husks are not separated from the meal. 

Germinating. — In this process the grain is steeped in 
wafer for twelve or twenty-four hours, and afterward exposed 
to the air till it begins to sprout, when it is ready for use. In 
the stable this preparation is termed " malting." Barley and 
oats are occasionally submitted to the process. Other kinds 
of grain, and perhaps pulse, may be thus treated, but I have 
not heard of any experiments upon them. 

The time required for producing germination varies in dif- 
ferent kinds of grain ; and it is influenced by the degree of 
heat, the quantity of moisture, and the access of light. The 
steeped seed is usually spread upon the floor of a warm and 
dark apartment ; the layer should not exceed an inch thick, 
and it should occasionally be turned over. The grain swells, 
becomes warm, bursts, and springs ; it is fermenting ; in this 
state it is given to the horse. When germination in barley is 
checked by a dry heat, the grain is fully malted ; but malt is 
not employed as an article of food for horses. The heavy 
duty forbids its use, and I do not know that it is wanted. 
When merely sprouted, it is said to be much relished by 
horses of defective appetite, and useful to those recovering 
from sickness. It is supposed to be more easily digested, and 
less inflammatory than the ra^" grain. 



PREPARATION OF FOOD. 211 

Steeping consists in throwing the grain into cold or tepid 
water for twelve or twenty-four hours. It absorbs much wa- 
ter, it softens, and it is easily eaten ; but I know not that 
anything is gained by sucli change. If the grain be drier 
and harder than usual, or the horse's teeth bad, or his mouth 
sore, steeping may be of some service. The horse drinks 
less water, but perhaps he receives as much with the grain 
as he refuses from the pail. 

Masking. — When hay is steeped in boiling water, it is 
said to be masked. The juice, and perhaps all the nutritive 
matter, is extracted from the hay and dissolved in the water. 
This liquor, termed hay-tea, is seldom given to horses, and 
indeed horses do not appear to be very fond of it. Some, 
however, have tried it, and they say that it makes a lean 
horse put up flesh very rapidly. Perhaps it might be useful 
after a day of extraordinary exertion, when the horse is more 
disposed to drink than to eat. It might be tried as a substi- 
tute for gruel. For this purpose clover hay is better than 
ryegrass. It should be of the best quality ; the water boil- 
ing, and the vessel closely covered till the tea be cool enough 
for use. 

Mashing is nearly the same as masking ; but both the sol- 
id and the fluid are given. A warm bran-mash is made by 
pouring boiling water upon the bran and covering it uphill 
cool. Tepid water, it is supposed, does not answer so well ; 
does not render the bran so digestible and mucilaginous as it 
becomes by steeping in boiling water. A cold mash is made 
at once, by pouring cold water upon the bran ; but if it be 
true that the bran is improved by heat, hot water should be 
used, and the mash exposed till cold. After all, there may 
be no diflerence. Barley and oats are each occasionally 
made into mashes ; that is to say, they are steeped in water, 
hot or boiling, and the water is given with the grain. When 
the surgeon orders the horse to be put on mashes, he always 
means those made of bran. 

Boiling. — The articles usually boiled are turnips, potatoes, 
grain of all kinds, beans, and peas. It is not likely that 
boiled food has exactly the same properties as that which is 
raw. To the eye and to the taste it is diflerent, and proba- 
bly it is different to the stomach also. It may yield more nu- 
triment ; it may yield less ; possibly it may furnish nutriment 
of a different kind, or, without any alteration in the quantity 
or quality of the nutriment, the food may be more or less 
rapidly or easily digested : but there is no positive proof, no 



212 STABLK ECONOMY. 

well-conducted experiments, to decide these conjectures. Il 
is known, however, that turnips and potatoes are more digest- 
ible when boiled than when raw. They are not so liable to 
produce colic, a disease arising from fermentation of that 
food over which the stomach has little power. Boiled grain 
seems to assimilate very quickly with the living solids and 
fluids. It restores vigor more rapidly than raw grain ; but 
that vigor does not last so long. Whatever be the changes 
produced upon the food by boiling, it appears probable that 
some articles are more improved tlian others, and that a few 
are better in the raw state. 

Agricultural and coach horses generally receive one feed 
of boiled food every day during about four months of the 
year, commencing at the end of autumn. Some horses get 
it all the year, except when grass is to be had. This boiled 
food is composed of several articles. Barley, beans, and tur- 
nips, form a mixture in common use, to which chaff, hay-seed, 
and perhaps bran, may be added. Oats often supply the place 
of barley ; and potatoes that of turnips. Wheat is not a 
great favorite ; but it is sometimes given for barley. The 
mixture is given warm, and is generally the last feed. For 
all hard-working horses this is a good system. They are 
fond of food thus prepared and mixed. They eat more of it. 
Tfiey always look better, have a finer skin, carry more flesh, 
and perform their work with less fatigue than when fed in 
the ordinary way upon raw oats and beans. In cold wet 
weather the warm boiled food is particularly beneficial. It 
makes the horse comfortable, and sets him soon to rest. 

I believe that much of the good ascribed to boiled food may 
be attributed to its warmth. [Cooking renders it more di- 
gestible, and it is more easily assimilated. The absorbing 
vessels are thus enabled more readily and fully to act. Ani- 
mal heat is necessary for digestion ; therefore cooking ren- 
ders food more nutritious.] No horse likes it when cold, 
many refuse it, and most of them prefer the raw article to 
that which has been boiled and become cold. The heat 
which boiled food should contain is conveyed into the sys- 
tem, or, at least, it saves the expense of producing all the 
heat which cold food takes from the system. 

There are two other circumstances which probably con- 
tribute a good deal to improve the horse's condition. The 
boiled food is rarely composed of the same articles. If oats 
and beans be given during the day, and barley, or barley and 
oats at night, the horse has the advantage of a mixed diet. 



PREPARATIOX OF FOOD. 21S 

which is always belter than that into which only one or two 
articles enter. The other circumstance I allude to is an in- 
creased consumption of food. The horse eats a larger quan- 
tity of this boiled food, partly because it is boiled, and partly 
because it contains articles to which he is less accustomed, 
and which are therefore more agreeable, and because he likes 
variety. 

It is not usua] to give boiled food to v jrking horses oftener 
than once a day Slow, and even fast-workers do, however, 
sometimes get it twice or thrice a day. Heavy draught- 
horses may have it thus often without disadvantage. But it 
is complained that those employed at fast-work, and on long 
journeys, become soft when they get boiled food so frequently. 
They perspire a great deal ; their vigor is not lasting ; they 
are sooner exhausted than horses that receive less boiled and 
more raw food. Whether this be true or not, the approach 
of hot weather always produces a dislike for boiled food. 
The horses, particularly fast horses, may take one feed, but 
few are fond of more. In coaching-stables, the boiling is 
discontinued as the weather becomes warm. It is not dis- 
carded all at once. Instead of giving boiled food every night, 
it is given only thrice a week; after a while, only once a 
week, and ultimately not at all. The practice commences in 
the same way, about the end of autumn. 

In boiling grain, care must be taken to prevent it from ad- 
hering to the bottom of the pot, where it gets burned, and be- 
comes nauseous. It must be often stirred. As the water 
evaporates, more should be added. Never let the liquor boil 
over. It contains a great deal of nutriment, extracted from 
the food. I often see it running to waste, the vessel being 
too smalj, or the attendant careless. Give the grain plenty 
of water, more than it will take up, and either give the liquor 
as a drink, or add chaff or bran to imbibe it. 

All the kinds of food are generally over-boiled. The horse 
dislikes slops. His food should be firm, hard enough to give 
the teeth some employment. Neither roots nor grain should 
be boiled to a jelly. They should be a little hard at the heart. 
The skin of grain and pulse, however, should be burst. When 
ready, the mass is emptied into a cooler, which is just a tub 
or trough, sometimes placed on wheels. In this, other arti- 
cles, such as chaff, bran, and meal, which do not require 
boiling, are added, and the whole incorporated into an equal 
mass. 

Oats require more boiling than beans, beans more than bar 



214 STABLE ECONOMY. 

ley, carrots and turnips more than potatoes. To have none 
overdone, the articles which require the most should be put 
on some time before the others. 

There are some other things connected with boiling which 
I have not been able to learn. It w^ould be well to know how 
much each article gains or loses in weight and in bulk, and 
in what time it may be sufficiently boiled. A few simple and 
not costly experiments would decide these, and they may be 
made by any person who has time to perform them. The 
following table taken from the Quarterly Journal of Agricul- 
ture, shows only the increase of bulk which certain grains 
suffer in boiling : — 

4 measures of oats, boiled to bursting, fill 7 measures. 

4 of barley, .10 

4 of buckwheat or brand, . . . . 14 

4 of maize, rather more than . . • 13 

4 of wheat, little more than . . . 10 

4 of rye, nearly 15 

4 of beans, 8^ 

Steaming. — In some places the food is cooked by steam. 
Whether it be better to steam it or to boil it, must depend 
upon circumstances. In a large establishment, if the food 
be very bulky, consisting chiefly of roots, it may require a 
vessel inconveniently large to boil it all at one time ; and in 
such a case steam is to be preferred. But where roots are 
not used, and the number of horses does not exceed fifty, the 
ordinary iron boiler answers the purpose well enough. 

As far as the food is concerned, I believe it is, with one 
exception, a matter of indifference whether it be cooked by 
steam or water. This exception refers to potatoes, which 
are drier, and according to some people more wholesome 
when steamed than when boiled. With the other articles I 
do not know that there is any difference. 

In favor of the steamer, it may be urged that it does all 
that the boiler can do ; that it never burns the food ; [that it 
does not require the labor of stirring ;] that it is more easily 
managed than a very large boiler ; and that it admits of the 
best mode of cooking potatoes, which the boiler does not. 

The apparatus may be very simple ; and after the attendant 
has had a little practice, it is easily worked. A steam-tight 
boiler is erected, having a funnel and stop-cock for admitting 
water ; a pipe for conveying the steam to its destination ; and 
a safety-valve to prevent explosion. Sometimes the valve ii 



PREPARATION OF FOOD. 
Fig. 17. — Steaming AprARATUS. 



215 




wanting ; and when the steam-pipe is short and wide, per 
haps the valve is of no great use. It is right, however, that 
there should be one. In connexion with the boiler there is 
a tub for holding the food. This has a false bottom, per- 
forated with numerous holes, and resting upon steps, within 
three or four inches of the true bottom ; the steam is admitted 
between them ; the steam rises upward, is diffused through 
the food, and retained by the lid, which should be made to 
lift off entirely, so that the food may be the more easily taken 
out. After the food is mixed and washed, it is thrown into 
the tub. A layer of chaff may previously be spread in the 
bottom, to prevent the grain from falling through the perfora- 
tions ; and another thick layer, may, if there be room, spread 
on the top of all. As the steam condenses, water accumu- 
lates in the space between the true and false bottoms ; oc- 
casionally this should be drawn off ; if it rises on the food it 
"vill be boiled instead of steamed. There is a hole for the 
purpose of withdrawing the water. When potatoes alone are 
steamed, this fluid is to be thrown away, but that which 
comes from other articles is to be given as a drink, or along 
with the food ; it is rich and palatable. That which comes 
from potatoes is said to be unwholesome. 

The steaming apparatus varies much in construction ; the 
simpler it is the better. Those to whom its management is 
intrusted are in general sufficiently stupid, not able to com- 
prehend a complex arrangement. Sometimes the boiler is at 



216 STABLE ECONOMY. 

a distance from the steam-tub. They are not easily attendecl 
when closely connected. Sometimes the tub is adjusted to 
the rim of an ordinary boiler, and this is the simplest of all 
methods, but inconvenient when there is much to be cooked 
Sometimes a steaming-tub is employed for each horse ; it is 
just like a stable-pail. Several are arranged in a row, and 
each has a branch-tube from the steam-pipe. Complication 
and expense attend this method, without any adequate advan 
tage. 

Baking. — Potatoes are the only article to which this pro- 
cess has been applied. I have not seen any detailed account 
of the practice, nor has it come under my own observation. 
There is some notice of it in the fourth volume of Communi- 
cations to the Board of Agriculture. 

Seasoning. — The custom of seasoning the horse's food is 
of recent origin, and, as yet, it is not general. Stablemen 
have indeed, from time immemorial, been in the habit of mix- 
ing nitre with all boiled food, and occasionally with the raw. 
but this is not what I mean by seasoning. Nitre, or salt- 
petre, as it is commonly called, does not render the food 
more palatable, nor aid its digestion, nor is it given for such 
purposes. 

SaJt is the only article employed in this country. In India, 
and perhaps in other places, the horse receives, at certain 
times, a dose of pepper, or some other stimulating and ar- 
omatic spice ; and in hot countries, such things may be use- 
ful, as to a certain extent, they are in this. 

There are two modes of giving salt, and a kind of salt for 
each mode. Some give one or two ounces of common table- 
salt, every night, along with the boiled food, with which it is 
well mixed ; others give six or eight ounces at a time, and 
only once a week, generally on Saturday night, if the horses 
be idle all Sunday. By the former mode it is said to promote 
digestion, and to render the food more palatable ; by the latter 
it relaxes the bowels, and increases the flow of urine. In 
both cases the salt excites considerable thirst, especially at 
first, before the horse becomes accustomed to it. When 
given only once a week, he never becomes accustomed to it. 
The same effects are produced every time the salt is given. 

I have no reason to approve much of either of these modes. 
Fast-working horses, either from the laxative property of the 
salt, or from the quantity of water which it makes them drink, 
are very apt to purge, and to sweat easily and copiously. 
Some horses, too, are not partial to salt, at least they do not 



PREPARATION OF FOOD. 217 

always like it. Its effects, when constantly used, b.te of such 
a doubtful nature, that I think every horse should have it in 
his power to take or to refuse it as he is disposed. That he 
may do so, he should' be supplied with 

Rock Salt. — The salt which is sold under this name in 
Glasgow, is brought from Cheshire, and is employed chiefly 
for cattle. It is procured in large masses, of a stony hard- 
ness. It is somewhat different from common salt, of which, 
however, it contains 983 parts in 1,000; the rest is sulphate 
of lime, muriate of lime, muriate of magnesia, and some in- 
soluble matter. It is not likely that these make it different 
to the horse from common salt. It is better, only, I believe, 
because it can be obtained in a solid form. Most of the 
coach proprietors in this neighborhood give it to theii horses 
all the year round, and they give no other. It is not mixed 
with the food. A lump, weighing perhaps two or three 
pounds, is placed in the manger ; when all consumed, it is 
replaced by another piece. With (ew exceptions the horses 
seem to be very fond of it ; some always refuse it ; and 
many reject it at one time, v/ho greedily devour it at another. 
Those that have not been used to the salt, are apt to eat a 
large quantity on the first day, and, in general, these are 
slightly purged on the next. Afterward, instead of eating the 
salt, the horse contents himself with licking it. The per- 
manent result is not always apparent. In very many cases 
I have never been able to trace either good or evil to its use. 
In some there has been a remarkable change, the lean and 
spiritless becoming plump and animated. 

Nitre, I have said, is frequently given in boiled food. 
Many foolish stablemen keep it constantly by them as an ar- 
ticle of indispensable utility. They say it cools the blood, 
and takes away swellings of the legs. 

Nitre is a diuretic of considerable power, and like all 
others, tends to reduce watery swellings, such as those to 
which the legs of horses are subject when they stand much 
in the house, when they are too highly fed, and when the 
legs are not sufficiently hand-rubbed. It excites the kidneys 
to secrete more urine : the urine is a certain portion of the 
blood, and, to replace what is lost by the kidneys, that which 
is superfluous about the legs or the sheath is taken up. To 
speak of nitre cooling the blood is nonsense, very evident to 
any body not very ignorant. [It promotes evacuation by the 
kidneys and skin, and by reducing the system, it acts to cool. 

19 



^18 STABLE ECn.VOMY. 

It is anti-febrile. To the human patient it is administered as 
a febrifuge.] 

As an article of constant or frequent use it ought to be 
abolished. In large quantities, it weakens a working-horse 
precisely in the same way that heated oats and musty hay 
weaken him. In smaller, but more frequent doses, it injures 
the kidneys [by reaction when omitted], and renders them 
unable to throw off all the superfluous and watery portion of 
the blood ; this, when not evacuated in the shape of urine, is 
deposited in the legs, the sheath, and other parrs ; hence the 
constant use of nitre ultimately produces the evils it is at first 
given to cure. An occasional dose to a half-worked, full-fed 
horse may do good, particularly when he is to stand idle on 
the following day. When the grain or hay is not very good, 
and is apt to excite diabetes, no diuretic medicines should 
ever be given but under the directions of a professiei^ml man. 
A veterinarian was once called to examine some horses that 
were sadly emaciated from the staling evil. The hay was 
bad ; but it was changed, and other measures taken to arrest 
the disease. They appeared to have the desired effect 
always till Sunday, when all the horses became nearly as ill 
as ever. At last it was discovered that the man put two 
pounds of nitre among the boiled food every Saturday night. 
This explained the repeated relapse. The fellow pretended 
to be a foreman — to know, not only his own business, but also 
something about the veterinarian's. 

ASSIMILATION OF THE FOOD. 

By the assimilation of the food, I mean its conversion into 
a part of the living body. This is effected by a series of 
processes, each of which is preparatory to that which follows 
it. Most of them have been named. 

Prehension is the act by which the food is taken into the 
mouth. At pasture the grass is seized by the lips, com- 
pressed into a little bundle, and placed between the front 
teeth, which separate it from the ground, by incision, aided 
by a sudden jerk of the head. In stable-feeding, the lips and 
teeth are used in nearly the same way. They seize the' food 
and place it within reach of the tongue, but they produce no 
change upon it. The front teeth have less to do in stable 
than in field-feeding, but in neither case do they masticate 
the food. Prehension of fluids is performed by sucking. 
The lips are dipped in the water, and the cavity of the mouth 



ASSIMILATION OF THE FOOD. 219 

is enlarged by depressing the tongue, by bringing it into the 
channel — the space between the sides of the lower jaw. 
Prehension may be difficult or interrupted by palsy or injury 
of the lips, soreness of the tongue, or loss of the front teeth. 
Colts often experience difficulty in grazing while changing 
the teeth. They lose flesh for a while, and, if they lose much, 
some rich fluid or salt boiled food may be given till the 
mouth get well. Horses that have lost one or two of their 
fore-teeth by falls, become unfit for turning out. Those that 
have lost a large portion of the tongue can not empty a pail. 
They can drink none unless the nostrils be under water ; but 
when only a small portion of the tongue has been lost, they 
have no difficulty. They can empty the pail. No horse can 
drink freely with a bit, particularly with a double-bit, in his 
mouth. It confines the tongue, and prevents close contact 
of the lips at the corners ; as much air as water enters the 
mouth. 

Mastication, the act of grinding the food, is performed 
altogether by the back-teeth. The food is placed between 
them by the tongue. Mastication is the first change which 
the food undergoes. It is broken into small particles, easily 
penetrable by the juices in which the food is about to be dis- 
solved. In many old horses, and even in some young ones, 
mastication is imperfect, from irregularity or disease of the 
teeth. When the horse feeds slowly, holds his head to one 
side, drops the food from his mouth half-chewed, and passes 
a large quantity unaltered, his teeth should be examined. 
One may be rotten, broken, or projecting into the cheek, or 
into the gum opposite. 

Insalivation. — The food suffers mastication and insaliva- 
tion at the same time. While under the operation of the 
grinders it is moistened and diluted by a fluid which enters 
the mouth at many little apertures. This fluid is almost 
transparent ; it is tasteless ; it is termed saliva. Much of it 
is furnished by two large glands, which are situated at that 
part of the throat where the head joins the neck. These two 
glands pour their secretions into the mouth by means of two 
tubes which open near the grinding-teeth. Some have sup- 
posed that the only use of this fluid is to dilute the food, and 
to facilitate i*astication and deglutition ; others, that it also, in 
a slight degree, animalizes the food. Hence it has been argued 
that the food should not be too soft, too easily eaten, lest it be 
swallowed without insalivation, and without the animalization 
which saliva ought to produce. It has been urged, as proof 



220 STABLE ECONOMY. 

that Iwrses do noi thrive so well when fed entirely upon boiled 
food. The illustration seems to be well established. Horses 
do not appear to possess lasting vigor and great energy when 
fed exclusively upon soft food ; but whether this proves that 
msalivation is animalization may be doubted. There is no 
proof of a positive kind, whether it is or is not. It would be 
easy to argue on either side, but it would be fruitless. 

Deglutition is the act of swallowing. The food, after 
being ground and moistened, is rolled into a ball by the tongue, 
and placed at the back of the mouth, where a compressing ap- 
paratus forces it into the gullet. The gullet, exerting a con- 
tractile power, forces the ball into the stomach. Deglutition 
may become difficult, or it may be partially suspended by sore- 
ness of the throat. When the throat in much inflamed, the 
horse may be anxious to eat, yet unable to swallow. When 
great pain attends the eflbrt he forbears further trial ; he 
chews the food and then throws it out of his month, being 
able perhaps to swallow only the juice. In less severe cases, 
he makes a peculiar motion of the head every time he swal- 
lows ; and in drinking, he drinks very slowly, and art of the 
water returns by the nostrils. In this state the horse should 
be put under medical treatment. 

Maceration. — Many of the articles upon which horses 
feed are hard and dry. They require to be softened before 
they can be dissolved, or before they will part with their nutri- 
tive matter. One end of the horse's stomach seems designed 
for macerating these substances. It is lined by a membrane 
void of sensibility. All the food is first lodged in this macera- 
ting corner, from which, when sufficiently softened, it passes 
into the other extremity. Refractory matters are either de 
tained or returned till they are ready to undergo the digestive 
process. 

Digestion consists in the extraction of the nutritious from 
the inert portion of the food. It is not a simple process, nor 
is it all conducted in the same place. It begins in the stomach 
and terminates in the bowels, probably at a considerable dis- 
tance from the point at which the residue is evacuated. The 
stomach of the horse is very small. There must be some 
reason why it is so, but none has ever been discovered.* [In 
the horse's stomach digestion is very rapid. H^nce a small 

* Inquiry seldom acknowledges defeat. A large stomach, it is said 
would interfere with the horse's speed. Perhaps it might. But it does not 
appear that the stomach was made small that he might be swift. Look al 
the pace of a camel and the size of his paunch. 



ASSIMILATION OF THE FOOD. 221 

Stomach only is necessary. If it were large, it would dimin- 
ish the size of the lungs. But large lungs are necessary for 
rapid and continuous action. Hence the necessity of a small 
stomach. But food in sufficient quantity is necessary, and 
thus the rapid digestion of the horse.] 

It can not retain the food very long ; the horse is almost 
constantly eating. At grass he eats as much in an hour, per- 
haps in half-an-hour, as would fully distend the stomach, yet 
he continues to eat for several hours in succession. The 
change, therefore, which the food undergoes in the stomach 
must be rapidly performed. The nature of this change is not 
precisely known. It is supposed that the gastric juice — that 
is, a juice or secretion furnished by the stomach — seizes the 
nutritive matter of the food, and combines with it to form a 
white milk-like fluid termed chyme. This, accompanied by 
the food, from which it has been extracted, enters the intes- 
tines, and there another change of composition takes place. 
Juices from the liver, from peculiar glands, and from the in- 
testines itself, are added, and the whole combine to form a 
compound fluid termed chyle. This adheres to the inner 
surface of the bowels, from which it is removed by an infinite 
number of tubes, whose mouths are inconceivably minute, to 
the eye invisible. These little tubes or pipes, are termed 
lacteals or absorbents ; they converge and run toward the 
spine, where their contents are received by a tube which 
empties itself into the left jugular vein. Accompanied by the 
blood, the chyle proceeds to the lungs, passes through them, 
and becomes blood. Having undergone sanguification, this 
chyle, the product of digestion, is as much a constituent of 
the living animal as any other part of him. 

It is not necessary to trace the food further. Its nutritive 
matter having been extracted, and animalized bv combination 
with animal juices, the product is removed as the mass travels 
through the intestines. By the time it has arrived at the 
point of evacuation, the food has lost all or most of the nutri- 
tive matter, and the residue is ejected as useless. 

The nutritive matter is carried from the intestines to the 
blood-vessels, where it is mingled with their contents. To 
follow it further would be to trace the conversion ot the W«od 
into the solids and fluids of which the body is qompojse*^ In 
this work such an inquiry is not necessary- 

19* 



222 STABLE ECONOMY. 

INDIGESTION OF THE FOOD. 

Men, particularly liousehold men, who do not work for 
what they eat, often have indigestion for several successive 
years. They are said to have a weak stomach, or to be 
troubled with bile. They are always complaining, never 
quite well, yet never very ill. The stomach is truly weak. 
Tt wants energy, it acts slowly, often imperfectly ; yet it is 
not wholly inactive. It rarely loses all control over the food. 
The horse seldom suffers under a similar complaint ; when 
indigestion does occur in him, it is a serious affair, soon cured, 
or soon producing death. In men the disease usually termed 
indigestion, ought perhaps to have another name, for all or 
most of the food does undergo the process of disrestion al- 
though it may be performed very slowly. The indigesti(/n I 
am about to speak of in the horse, has been termed acute. It 
ought to be called complete ; or rather, that in man should 
be termed difficult. After this explanation, the reader need 
not confound indigestion in man with indigestion in the horse. 
They are totally different. The structure of the horse's 
stomach, and the nature of his food, account to a certain ex- 
tent for the difference. But in men the digestion is difficult, 
in the horse it is not performed. 

It is very obvious that the stomach in health must exercise 
a peculiar control over the food, which does not putrefy, or 
ferment, as it would, were it kept equally warm and moist in 
any place but the stomach. So long as the stomach is able 
to digest, the food suffers neither putrefaction nor fermenta- 
tion. But it sometimes happens that the stomach loses its 
poV'-er. It becomes unable to digest the food, or to exercise 
any control over its changes. 

Now, when the horse's stomach ceases to digest, one of 
two things usually takes place. Either the food remains in 
the stomach without undergoing any change, or it runs into 
fermentation. In the one case the horse is often foundered ; 
in the other he is griped, he takes what I shall here call colic. 

Founder is an inflammation of the feel, generally of the fore- 
feet, but sometimes of them all. It is not apparent why a load 
of undigested food in the stomach should produce a disease 
in the feet ; yet it is well known that it does so. There 
seems to be some untraced connexion between the feet and 
the stomach, and some theories have been made on the sub- 
ject, but I have heard none worth notice ; we do not even 
know why in one case the food remains unchanged, and in 



INDIGESTION OF THE FOOD. 223 

Rnother undergoes fermentation. Perhaps it depends a good 
deal upon the quantity of water that happens to be present 
with the food. [This is all idle speculation and not to be de- 
pended on ; founder never springs from this cause.] 

An overloaded stomach is one of the causes of indigestion. 
If a horse reach the grain-chest, or in any other way obtain 
a large meal of grain, he will be very likely to take colic in 
an hour or inoro after he gets water. If water be withheld, 
he may founder ; but colic will not occur, unless there be much 
Avater previously in the stomach or bowels. Those who are 
experienced in these matters know how to manage a horse 
after he has been gorged with food. They give him no water 
all that day, and none on the next till evening. Then they 
give only a little at a time, and often, till thirst be quenched. 
If he be a slow horse he goes to work, but if his work be fast 
he must remain at home, having, however, a good deal of 
walking exercise. In this way the stablemen prevents what 
he calls the crripes, colic, or batls. He is ignorant of the 
mode in whicli water operates, but experience htS taught him 
that it has something to do with the disease. Founder, it is 
true, may happen, but that is usually regarded as a more 
curable malady than the other. It is not so deadly, but I shall 
presently show that colic can be cured sooner, and with more 
certainty, than founder. 

Staggers. — A kind of apoplexy is sometimes produced by 
the presence of undigested food in the stomach. In this 
country the disease is not common, and there is nothing like 
it when the food ferments. Obstinate constipation, and some- 
times complete obstruction of the bowels, are the occasional 
results of indigestion. 

The Process of Fbrmentation must be familiar to almost 
everybody. Grain, or other vegetable matter, when thrown 
into a heap, moistened, and heated to a certain point, soon 
undergoes a change. The principal phenomenon attending 
which is the evolution of air in great abundance, more per- 
haps than twenty or thirty times the bulk of the articles from 
which it is extricated. When this process takes place in the 
stomach, the horse's life is in danger, for he has no power 
like some other animals to belch up the air. Distension 
of the stomach and bowels rapidly succeeds, and runs so far 
as to rupture them. If the stomach or bowels do not give 
way, life may be destroyed by inflammation or strangulation 
of the bowels, or the mere pain of distension may produce 
death before there is time either for rupture, inflammation, or 



224 STABLE ECONOMY. 

Strangulation. The disease sometimes cures itself, the air 
not being very abundant, or being evacuated by passing 
through the bowels ; but very often the horse dies in from 
four to twelve hours. Sometimes he dies in two, and some- 
times not till he has been ill for eighteen or twenty-four. The 
disease goes under various names. In different places it is 
termed gripes, the batts, fret, colic, flatulent colic, spasmodic 
colic, enteritis, inflamed bowels, and acute indigestion. It 
has been described by only one author with whom I am ac- 
quainted, and he speaks of it as a rare disease. All who have 
written treatises on veterinary medicine, have seen the disease 
several times, but they mistake it for some other to which 
they have given names, according to the appearances they 
have seen on dissecting the horse after death. Thus, one 
describes the symptoms, and attributes them to inflammation 
of the bowels ; another to spasms of the bowels ; a third to 
strangulation ; a fourth to rupture of the diaphragm, and so on, 
with far too many more. All these, and several others, are 
the effect of fermentation of the food either in the stomach or 
in the bowels. The cause has been overlooked, and death 
traced only to the effects of the cause. The disease which 
is treated and described by authors and teachers as inflamed 
bowels, spasmodic colic, strangulation, ruptured stomach, 
ruptured diaphragm, is in 136 out of 137 cases, neither more 
nor less at the beginning than a distension of the stomach 
and bowels by air. I know this from my own practice, of 
which, in reference to this disease, I have kept a record dur- 
ing 18 months. For the sake of brevity in reference, I shall 
term it 

Colic. — I go a little out of my limits to speak of this dis- 
ease. I do so for four reasons. In the first place, the dis- 
ease is deadly ; it destroys more heavy draught-horses than 
all others put together. In the second place, 1 can show how 
it may be cured with infallible certainty, if it be taken in 
time. In the third place, the disease requires immediate re- 
lief ; the horse may be dead, or past cure, before the medical 
assistant can be obtained. And in the fourth place, the na- 
ture of the disease and its treatment, are not known, or they 
are too little known by the veterinarian. These circumstan- 
ces induce me to digress a little from the proper object of this 
work ; and I think they are of sufficient importance to render 
apology unnecessary. I will, however, be brief. In another 
place I will enter into details which would be improper in this. 

The Causes of Colic are rather numerous. I have already 



INDIGESTION OF THE lOOD. 225 

said that an overloaded stomach is one, particularly when 
water is given either immediately before, or immediately af- 
ter an extraordinary allowance of food ; but water directly 
after even an ordinary meal is never very safe. [It suspends 
digestion and occasions fermentation.] Another cause is vi- 
olent exertion on a full stomach ; a third cause, is a sudden 
change of diet, from hay, for instance, to grass, or from oats 
to barley ; but an allowance, particularly a large allowance, of 
any food to which the horse has not been accustomed, is lia- 
ble to produce colic. Some articles produce it oftener than 
others. Raw potatoes, carrots, turnips, green food, seem 
more susceptible of fermentation than hay or oats, barley 
more than beans ; wheat and pease more than barley. Such 
at least they have seemed to me ; but it is probable that in 
the cases from which I have drawn my conclusions, sudden 
change and quantity may have had as much to do in pro- 
ducing colic, as the fermentable nature of the food. Haste 
in feeding is a common cause ; if the horse swallow his food 
very greedily, without sufficient mastication, he is very liable 
to colic. 

Heavy draught-horses are almost the only subjects of colic, 
and among the owners of them it is difficult to meet with an 
old farmer or carter who has not lost more than one. Light, 
fast-working horses are rarely troubled with it, and few die 
of it. The difference is easily explained. Heavy, slow- 
working horses are long in the yoke, they fast till their appe- 
tite is like a raven's ; when they come home they get a large 
quantity of grain all at once, and they devour it in such haste 
that it is not properly masticated, and the stomach is sud- 
denly overloaded. Possibly the quantity may not be very 
great, yet it is eaten too fast. The juice by which the food 
should be digested can not be made in such a hurry, at least 
not enough of it ; and add to this the rapid distension of the 
stomach ; more deliberate mastication and deglutition would 
enable this organ to furnish the requisite quantity of gastric 
juice, and to dilate sufficiently to contain the food with ease. 
In fast feeding, the stomach is taken too much by surprise. 

Light horses are usually fed oftener, and with more regu- 
larity. They receive grain so often that they are not so fond 
of it ; not disposed to eat too much ; and the nature of their 
work often destroys the appetite, even when abstinence has 
been unusually prolonged. 

The bulk of the food, however, has a great deal to do with 
this disease. An overloaded stomach will produce it in any 



226 STABLE ECONOMY. 

kind of horse, but those who have the bowels and stomact 
habitually loaded are always in greatest danger. Horses tha, 
get little grain must eat a large quantity of roots or of fodder 
as much as the digestive apparatus can control. The stomach 
and bowels can not act upon any more, and that which they 
can not act upon runs speedily into fermentation. 

This seems to me the principal reason why slow-work 
horses are so much more liable to the disease than fast- 
workers. When the pace reaches seven or eight miles an 
hour, the belly will not carry a great bulk of food, and so 
much grain is given that the horse has no inclination to load 
his bowels with fodder. There is never, or very rarely, mori 
food than the stomach, the bowels, and the juices of these, 
can act upon. 

Symptoms of Colic. — The horse is taken suddenly ill. If 
at work, he slackens his pace, attempts to stop, and when he 
stops, he prepares to lie down ; sometimes he goes down as 
if shot, the moment he stands or is allowed to stand ; at slow 
work he sometimes quickens his pace and is unwilling to 
stand. In the stable he begins to paw the ground with his 
fore feet, lies down, rolls, sometimes quite over, lies on his 
back ; when the distension is not great he lies tolerably qui- 
et, and for several minutes. But when the distension and 
pain are greater, he neither stands nor lies a minute; he is 
no sooner down than he is up. He generally starts all at 
once, and throws himself down again wiih great violence. 
He strikes the belly with his hind feet, and in moments of 
comparative ease he looks wistfully at his flanks. When 
standing he makes many and fruitless attempts to urinate ; 
and the keeper always declares there is " something wrong 
with the water." In a little while the belly swells all round, 
or it swells most on the right flank. The worst, the most 
painful cases, are those in which the swelling is general ; 
sometimes it is very inconsiderable, the air being in small 
quantity, or not finding its way into the bowels. As the dis- 
ease proceeds, the pain becomes more and more intense. 
The horse dashes himself about with terrible violence. Ev- 
ery fall threatens to be his last. The perspiration runs ofl* 
him in streams. His countenance betrays extreme agony^ 
his contortions are frightfully violent, and seldom even for an 
instant suspended. 

After continuing in this state for a brief period, other symp- 
toms appear, mdicating rupture or inflammation, or the ap- 
proach of deaiti without either. These, and the treatment 



INDIGESTION OF THE FOOD. 227 

rliey demand, I need not describe here. The horse may 
either be cured, or a veterinarian obtained, before inflammation 
or other consequences of the distension can take place. 

Treatment of Colic. — The treatment consists in arrestino 
the fermentation, and in re-establishing the digestive powers. 
There are many things that will do both. In mild cases a 
good domestic remedy in common use among oldfashioned 
people who have never heard of inflamed, spasmed, or stran- 
gulated bowels, is whiskey and pepper, or gin and pepper. 
About half a tumbler of spirits with a teaspoonful of pepper, 
given in a quart bottle of milk or warm water, will often 
afford immediate relief. If the pain do not abate in twenty 
or thirty minutes, the dose may be repeated, and even a thir'd 
dose is in some cases necessary. Four ounces of spirits of 
turpentine, with twice as much sweet oil, is much stronger 
but if the horse is much averse to the medicine, turpentine is 
not always quite safe. 

There is, however, a better remedy, which should always 
be in readiness wherever several draught-horses are kept. 
Take a quart of brandy, add to it four ounces of sweet spirit 
of nitre, three ounces of whole ginger, and three ounces of 
cloves. In eight days this mixture or tincture is ready for 
use ; the cloves and ginger may still remain in the bottle, but 
they are not to be given. Set the bottle away, and put a la- 
ble upon it ; call it the " Colic Mixture." The dose is six 
ounces, to be given in a quart of milk or warm water every 
fifteen or twenty minutes till the horse be cured. Keep his 
head straight, and not too high when it is given ^ Do not pull 
out his tongue, as some stupid people do, when giving a drink. 
If the horse be very violent, get him into a wide open place, 
where you will have room to go about him. If he will not 
stand till the drink be given, watch him when down, and give 
it, though he be lying, whenever you can get him to take a 
mouthful. But give the dose as quickly as possible. After 
that, rub the belly with a soft wisp, walk the horse about 
very slowly, or give him a good bed, and room to roll. In 
eighty cases out of ninety this treatment will succeed, pro- 
vided the medicine be got down the horse's throat before his 
bowels become inflamed, or strangulated, or burst. The de- 
lay of half an hour may be fatal. 

When the second dose does not produce relief, the third 
may be of double or treble strength. 1 have given a full 
C{uart in about an hour, but the horse was very ill. 



228 STABLE ECONOMY. 

In many cases the horse takes ill during the night, and is 
far gone before he is discovered in the morning. In such a 
case this remedy may be too late, or it may not be proper ; 
still, if the belly be swelled, let it be given, unless the veter- 
inary surgeon can be procured immediately. In all cases it 
is proper to send for him at the beginning. You or your ser- 
vants may not be able to give the medicine, or the disease 
may have produced some other, Mrhich this medicine will not 
cure. If the veterinarian can be got in a few minutes, do 
nothing till he comes. But do not wait long. 

The horse is sometimes found dead in the morning ; his 
belly is always much swelled, and the owner is suspicious of 
poisoning. I have known much vexation arise from such 
suspicion, when a single glance at the belly might have shown 
from what the horse died. There is no poison that will pro- 
duce this swelling, which is sometimes so great as to burs* 
the surcingle. On dissection the stomach is frequently burst, 
the belly full of food, water, and air, and the diaphragm rup- 
tured. When death is slow, the bowels are always intensely 
inflamed, sometimes burst, and often twisted. But these 
things will never happen when the treatment I have recom- 
mended is adopted at the very beginning. 

The horse sometim.es takes the disease on the road. If 
his pace be fast, he should stop at once. To push him on 
beyond a walk, even for a short distance, is certain death. 
The bowels are displaced, twisted, and strangulated, partly 
by the distension, but aided a great deal by the exertion ; and 
no medicine will restore them to their proper position. A 
walk after the medicine is good, and the pace should not pass 
a walk. 

PKINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 

The principles of feeding are facts which influence and 
ought to regulate the practice of feeding. The word feeding 
refers to the manger-food, given at intervals, not to the hay 
or fodder, which is alir.ost constantly within the horse's reach. 

People who are unacquainted with stable affairs make many 
blunders in the management of their horses, and particularly 
in feeding them. They reason too much from analogy. The 
rules which regulate their own diet are applied to that of the 
horse. Medical men are remarkable for this. A skilful sur- 
geon expressed his conviction, that stablemen are full of er- 
ror and prejudice regarding the diet of horses. He said : *• I 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 229 

order my patients to live on plain food, on that which does 
not tempt excess ; and I tell them to eat when they are hun- 
gry, and to desist when satisfied, h is thus I treat my horse," 
continued lie ; " I give him plain wholesome food, as much 
as he likes, and when he likes." 

This is sufficiently absurd ; it is a common way of speak- 
ing only with the ignorant. It might be a very good rule, if 
there were no food for the horse but grass, and none for man 
but bread. Horses may eat more grain, and men more beef 
than their work requires ; or the plain, wholesome nourish- 
ment, as it is called, may not suffice for certain kinds of 
work. It is this, it is the work which renders care and sys- 
tem so necessary in the feeding of horses. Men have to 
work, too, but very few have labor bearing any resemblance 
to that of the horse, and those few are compelled to regulate 
their diet by rules which are not known to the bulk of man- 
kind. The diver, the boxer, the runner, and the wrestler, 
must not live like other men. The fermentable nature of the 
horse's food, and the peculiar structure of his stomach which 
forbids vomition, and the abstinence from food and drink oc- 
casionally required by the work, are other circumstances 
which demand particular attention to the mode of feeding. 

Slow Work aids digestion, empties the bowels, and sharp- 
ens the appetite. Hence it happens that on Sunday night 
and Monday morning there are more cases* of colic and 
founder than during any other part of the week. Horses 
that never want an appetite ought not to have an unlimited 
allowance of hay on Sunday ; they have time to eat a great 
deal more than they need, and the torpid state of the stomach 
and bowels produced by a day of idleness, renders an ad- 
ditional quantity very dangerous. 

By slow work, I mean that which is performed at a walk, 
not that which hurries the breathing, or produces copious 
perspiration. The moderate exertion of which I speak does 
not, as some might suppose, interfere with the digestive pro- 
cess. It is attended with some waste ; there is some ex- 
penditure of nutriment, and that seems to excite activity in 
the digestive apparatus for the purpose of replacing the loss. 
Farm and cart-horses are fed immediately before commencing 
their labor, and the appetite with which they return shows 
that the stomach is not full ; but. 

During Fast Work digestion is suspended. — In the gene- 
ral commotion excited by violent exertion, the stomach can 
hardly be in a favorable condition for performing its duty 

20 



230 STABLE ECONOMY. 

The blood circulates too rapidly to permit the formation of 
gastric juice, or its combination with the food ; and the blood 
and the nervous influence are so exclusively concentrated and 
expended upon the muscular system, that none can be spared 
for carrying on the digestive process. 

The Effects of Fast Work on a Full Stomach are well enough 
known among experienced horsemen. The horse becomes 
sick, dull, breathless. He is unwilling, or unfit to proceed 
at nis usual pace ; and if urged onward, he quickly shows all 
the systems of over-marking, to which I allude among the 
accidents of work. The effects are not always the same. 
Sometimes the horse is simply over-marked, distressed by 
work that should not produce any distress. Some take colic, 
some are foundered, some broken-winded. The most frequent 
result is over-marking in combination with colic. Perhaps 
the colic, that is, the fermentation of the food, begins before 
the horse is distressed ; but whether or not, his distress is 
always much aggravated by the colic. 

These effects are not entirely produced by indigestion. 
The difficulty of breathing may be ascribed to mere fulness 
of the stomach. Pressing upon the diaphragm, and encroach- 
ing upon the lungs, it prevents a fall inspiration ;* and its 
weight, though, not, perhaps, exceeding eight or nine pounds, 
must have considerable influence upon a horse that has to 
run at full speed, and even upon one who has to go far, though 
not so fast. 

Some horses commence purging on the road, if fed directly 
before starting They seem to get rid of the food entirely or 
partly : for these, which are generally light-bellied horses, do 
not suffer so much, or so often, from any of the evils con- 
nected with a full stomach. The purgation, however, often 
continues too long, and is rapidly followed by great ex- 
haustion. They should be kept short of water on working 
days, and they should have a large allowance of beans. 

All work, then, which materially hurries the breathing 
ought to be performed with an empty stomach, or at leas, 
without a full stomach. Coaching-horses are usually fed 
from one to two hours before starting, and hay is withheld 
after the grain is eaten. Hunters are fed early in the morn- 
ing ; and racers receive no food on running days till their 
work be over. Abstinence, however, must not be carried so 
far as to induce exhaustion before the work commences. 

After Fast Work is concluded, it is a little while ere 
the stomach is in a condition to digest the food. Until thirst 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 23 

has been allayed, and the system calmed, there is seldom any 
appetite. If the horse have fasted long, or be tempted by at 
article of which he is very fond, he may be induced to eat. 
But it is not right to let him ; a little does him no good, and 
a full feed does him harm. The stomach partaking of the 
general excitement, is not prepared to receive the food. Fer- 
mentation takes place, and the horse's life is endangered ; 
or the food lies in the stomach unchanged, and produces 
founder. 

Food, then, is not to be given after work till the horse be 
cool, his breathing tranquil, and his pulse reduced to its 
natural standard. By the time he is dressed and watered, he 
is generally ready for feeding. 

Salt and Spices aid Digestion. — On a journey, or after 
a severe day, horses often refuse their food. When fatigued, 
tired of his feed, a handful of salt may be thrown among the 
horse's grain. That will often induce him to eat it, and it 
will assist digestion, or at least render fermentation less 
likely to occur. Some, however, will not eat even with this 
inducement. Such may have a cordial ball, which in general 
produces an appetite in ten minutes. I am speaking of cases 
in which the horse has become cool, and those in which the 
work has not fevered him. The horse should always be 
cool before food is offered ; and if his eye be red, and pulse 
quick, cordials, salt, and the ordinary food, are all forbidden. 
The horse is fevered. 

Abstinence unusually prolonged is connected with in- 
digestion, and it produces debility. 

The Indigestion of Abstinence may in some cases arise 
from an enfeebled condition of the digestive apparatus. The 
stomach and bowels may partake of the general languor and 
exhaustion, and be in some measure unable to perform their 
functions ; but of this there is no proof. When a horse has 
fasted all day, he is very apt to have colic soon after he is 
fed at night. It happens very often. The voracious manner 
in which the horse feeds has something to do with it. He 
devours his food in great haste, without sufficient mastication, 
and he often eats too much. The sudden and forcible dis- 
tension of the stomach probably renders it unable to perform 
its duty. The quantity, the quality, and the hurried ingestion 
of the food, account for the frequency of colic, after a long 
fast, without supposing that the stomach is weak. The ap- 
petite seems to indicate that it is not. 

The result may be prevented. Give the horse food oftener 



232 STABLE ECOXOMY. 

When prolonged abstinence is unavoidable, give him less 
than he would eat. Divide the allowance into two feeds, 
with an interval of at least one hour between each. In this 
way the appetite dies before the stomach is overloaded. To 
prevent hurried ingestion, give food that is not easily eaten. 
Boiled food, after a long fast, is unsafe, and grain should be 
mixed with chaff'. 

The Debility or Inanition of Abstinence is denoted by dul- 
ness. The horse is languid, feeble, and inoffensive. Want 
of food tames the very wildest ; and sometimes vicious horses 
are purposely starved to quietness. The time a horse may 
fast before he lose any portion of his vigor, varies very much 
in difi'erent individuals. In some few, it may dep'end upon 
peculiarity of form. Light-bellied narrow-chested horses 
can not afford to fast so long as those of round and large car- 
case. But in general the power of fasting depends upon 
habit, the kind of food, and the condition of the horse. When 
.accustomed to receive his food only twice or thrice a day, he 
can fast longer by an hour or two, without exhaustion, than 
when he is in the habit of eating four or five times. As a 
general rule, liable, however, to many exceptions, it may be 
held that a horse begins to get weak soon after his usual hour 
of eating is past. The degree and rapidity with which his 
vigor fails depend upon his work and condition. If idle, or 
nearly so, for a day or two previous, he may miss two or 
three meals before exhaustion is apparent. Languor is 
probably felt sooner. If in low condition, he can not fast 
long without weakness. He has nothing to spare. If his 
usual food be all or partly soft, he can not bear abstinence so 
well as when it is all or partly hard. 

Horses in daily and ordinary work should seldom fast more 
than three or four hours. They generally get grain four or 
five times a day, and between the feeding hours they are per- 
mitted to eat hay ; so that, except during work, very few 
horses fast more than four hours. But some, such as hunters 
and racers, are often required to fast much longer. Hunters 
are sometimes out for more than nine hours, and they go out 
with an empty stomach, or with very little in it. The only 
evil arising from such prolonged abstinence is exhaustion, and 
among fast-working horses that can not be avoided. The 
work and the abstinence together may produce great ex- 
haustion and depression, and the horse may require several 
days of rest to restore him. But if he had been fed in the 
middle of this trying work, he would have been unable to 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 233 

complete it. The evils arising from prolonged abstinence are 
less dangerous than those arising from fast work on a full 
stomach. 

The work which must be performed with an empty stom- 
ach, should be finished as quickly as circumstances will per- 
mit. In order that the racer or the hunter may have all the 
vigor he ought to have, his work should be over before ab- 
stinence begins to produce debility. How long he must fast 
before he is fit to commence his task, must depend upon the 
pace, the distance, and the horse's condition. The stomach, 
after an ordinary meal of grain, is probably empty in about 
four hours. For a pace of eight or ten miles an hour, it does 
not need to be empty ; if the food be so far digested that it 
will not readily ferment, a little may remain in the stomach 
without rendering the horse unfit for exertion of this kind. 
Coaching-horses, therefore, go to the road in from one to two 
hours after feeding. For a hunting-pace, perhaps a digestion 
of two hours will secure the food from fermentation : and in 
that time, after a moderate meal, the weight and bulk of the 
food which remains in the stomach will not encumber the 
horse nor impede his breathing. For a racing-pace the 
stomach must be empty, and the bowels must not be full. I 
do not know exactly how long racers are fed before com- 
mencing their work. The time appears to vary, spare feed- 
ers not being required to fast so long as those of better ap- 
petite. I rather think that they are often, or sometimes, kept 
too long without food ; but 1 have little right to venture an 
opinion on the subject. It appears that racers sometimes re- 
ceive no food on running days till their work is over. If hay 
were withheld for twelve hours, and grain for three or four 
before starting, I should think such restriction would be 
suflficient. These horses, however, are always in high con- 
dition ; they can afford to fast for a long time before fasting 
produces exhaustion, and the distance they run is so short 
that the expenditure of nutriment is not great. With horses 
in lower condition, having less spare nutriment in them, a 
fast of twelve hours produces a sensible diminution of energy, 
and in this state he is not fit to perform all that he could per- 
form after abstinence of only four or six hours. In the course 
of training, either for the course or the field, the groom should 
learn how long the horse can bear fasting without losing 
vigor, and that will tell him how to regulate the diet on the 
day of work. 

When the distance is considerable, or the work requiring 
20* 



23'1 STABLE ECONOMY. 

several hours of continuous exertion, the waste of nutriment 
is greater than when the distance is short, or the work soon 
over, and the abstinence must be regulated accordingly. For 
a long road, the sooner a horse is fit to begin his task after 
feeding, the less will he be exhausted at the end of it. 

To prevent, in some degree, the debility of abstinence when 
the. work forbids food, it is not unusual, I believe, to give a 
little spirits of wine. Between the heats of a race a pint of 
sherry or two glasses of brandy may be given in a quart of 
water. The horse will drink it, and I do not know of any 
objection to such a practice. The energy it inspires is over 
in about an hour, and it is not developed in less than ten 
minutes. From ten to fifteen minutes before running is 
therefore the proper time to give it ; the horse may run in 
five, but in that case the race will be over before the stimulant 
operates. [We must discountenance spirituous stimulants to 
give temporary energy. If any be necessary, a nervous one 
should be used.] 

I have said that the only evil arising from prolonged absti- 
nence is exhaustion. There is, however, one more, and 
though of little consequence, it deserves notice. When the 
stomach is empty, and the bowels containing very little, the 
horse is sometimes troubled with flatulence. The bowels 
seem to contain a good deal of air. They are noisy : the 
horse has slight intermitting colicky pains, which do not last 
above a minute, are never violent, and cease as the air is ex- 
pelled. I have never known this require any particular 
treatment ; but a little spirits, or half a dose of the colic mix- 
ture, or a feed of oats, or a cordial ball, removes it at once. 

Inabstinence. — It often happens that horses who are much 
m the stable, and receiving an unlimited allowance of 
food, are never permitted to fast. They get food so often, 
and so much at a time, that they always have some before 
them. This is not right. A short fast produces an appetite, 
and induces the horse to eat more, upon the whole, than 
when he is cloyed by a constant supply. If not on full work, 
the horse eats too much, although not so much as he would 
after short and periodical fasts. Still he eats more than his 
work demands. He should not have an unlimited quantity. 
The food is wasted, and the horse becomes too fat. But 
when the work is so laborious that the digestive apparatus 
can not furnish more nutriment than the system consumes, 
then the more the horse eats the better ; and a short fast 
prior to every feeding houi creates an appetite. When grain 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 235 

is always before him, ne never becomes sufficiently hungry 
to eat heartily. In some places thirty or forty minutes are al- 
lowed to feed ; and when the time expires, a man goes round 
the mangers and removes all the grain that is left. In other 
places the left grain is not taken away, but, if not all eaten 
before the next feeding hour, no more is given at that time. 

The Hours of Feeding must vary with the work ; when 
that is regular, the hours of feeding should be fixed. After 
the horse has become accustomed to them, they should not be 
suddenly changed. When the work is irregular, the horse 
often called to it without much notice, and when it does nci; 
demand an empty stomach, the horse should be fed often. By 
giving the allowance at four or five services, ir:.stead of two or 
three, the horse is always ready for the road. He can never 
have so much in his stomach at any time as if he were fed 
seldomer. On a posting establishment, all the horses that are 
in should not be fed at the same time ; one pair, or two, or 
more, may be kept in readiness for work, not fed till some 
others are ready. 

It is probable that fixed hours of feeding are favorable to 
digestion, and it is certain that any sudden and considerable 
change of hour is attended with disadvantage. When the in- 
terval of abstinence is abridged, the horse does not eat so 
heartily ; and when prolonged, he becomes exhausted. But 
when there are no fixed hours observed, the horse's appetite 
is the only guide. When the feeding hours are variable, the 
horse gets hungry only when the system wants nutriment ; 
when the hours are fixed, the stomach demands a supply, 
whether the system wants it or not. 

The Bulk of the Food is an important consideration in 
the feeding of horses. When fed entirely, or chiefly, upon 
hay, grass, or roots, they are not fit for fast work. There are 
three reasons why they are not. Bulky food distends the 
stomach and makes it encroach upon the lungs, and impede 
breathing ; its weight encumbers the horse ; and it does not 
yield sufficient nutriment. The horse may be able enough 
for slow work, because that work does not demand all the 
energies of the system. But hunting, coaching, and racing, 
are tasks of such labor, that the least impediment to breathing 
renders the horse unable to perform them. Hay or grass 
alone will yield sufficient nourishment to an idle horse ; but 
he must eat a great deal of it ; so much that his belly is al- 
ways very large ; the bowels must be constantly full. Such 
a load is not so easily carried in the belly as on the back 



236 STABLE ECONOMY. 

This weight, and the difficulty of breathing, are sufficient to 
render bulky food unfit for fast- working horses. But even 
slow work, when exacted in full measure, demands food in a 
condensed form. The work, though slow, requires more nu- 
triment than a bellyful of hay or grass will yield. The nour- 
ishment extracted from hay, straw, or potatoes, may be quite 
as good as <hat extracted from oats ; but the stomach and the 
bowels can not hold enough of these bulky articles. 

A horse may gallop at the top of his speed for a few mo- 
ments, even when his bowels are loaded with bulky food ; 
but he soon stops or staggers, over-marked, or broken-wind- 
ed, or he takes colic ; one or all of these evils may be ex- 
pected when he is put to fast work with his bowels loaded. 
Bulky food also renders the horse exceedingly liable to colic ; 
and to me this appears to be the principal reason why the 
disease is so much more common in draught than in saddle 
horses. 

Condensed Food, for reasons already stated, is necessary 
for fast-working horses. Their food must be in less compass 
than that of the farm or cart horse. But to this condensa- 
tion there are some limits. Grain affords all, and more than 
all, the nutriment a horse is capable of consuming, even un- 
der the most extraordinary exertion. His stomach and bow- 
els can hold more than they are able to digest ; [or, if it 
could be digested, it would furnish more nutriment than could 
be assimilated ; or, if assimilated, than the system demands.] 
Something more than n^itriment is wanted. The bowels 
must suffer a moderate degree of distension ; more than a 
wholesome allowance of grain can produce. They are very 
capacious. In the dead subject nearly thirty gallons of wa- 
ter can br put into them. It is evident they were not intended 
for food in a very condensed form ; and it seems that they 
require a moderate degree of pressure or dilatation to assist 
their functions. It is not certain that their secretions, sensa- 
tions, and contractions, are altered by emptiness, but it is 
probable. They must have something to act upon. 

When hay is very dear, and grain cheap, it is customary, 
in many stables, to give less than the usual allowance ofrhay 
and more grain. The alteration is sometimes carried too 
far, and it is often made too suddenly. The horses may have 
as much grain as they will eat, yet it does not suffice with- 
out fodder. Having no hay, they will leave the grain to eat 
the litter. A craving sensation of emptiness seems to arise, 
and the horse endeavors to relieve it by eating straw The 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 237 

sensation can not be the same as that of hunger, otherwise 
the horse would devour his grain. While he has plenty of 
grain, and plenty of litter, the diminished allowance of hay 
is borne with impunity. [The bowels need distension ; hay 
contains a large amount of woody fibre ; this produces dis- 
tension, and is ejected as fecal matter. - Without distension 
and abundant fecal matter, there can be no health.] 

When sufficiency is not obtained in any shape, the horse 
loses appetite, emaciates ; his bowels are confined ; his 
flank sadly tucked up — his belly indeed almost entirely 
disappears ; in general he drinks little water, and when 
he takes much he is apt to purge. His belly is often 
noisy, rumbling of the bowels ; apparently containing a good 
deal of air, which occasionally produces slight colicky pains. 
These horses are said, and I believe truly' said, to be very 
liable to crib-biting and wind-sucking. It is certain that 
the diseases are exceedingly rare among those that live on 
bulky food. 

When the ordinary fodder, then, is very dear, its place 
must be supplied by some other which will produce a whole- 
some distension, though it may not yield so much nutriment. 
Straw or roots, either or both, may be used in such cases. 
The excessively tucked-up flank, and the horse's repeated 
efforts to eat his litter, show when his food is not of sufficient 
bulk. 

When work demands the use of condensed food in a horse 
that has been accustomed for some time to bulkier articles, 
the change should be made by degrees. Coming from grass, 
or the straw-yard, the horse, for a time, requires more fodder 
than it would be proper to allow him at his work. 

Hard Food. — For a long time it has been almost univer- 
sally supposed that the greatest and most lasting vigor could 
not be obtained without an ample allowance of hard, substan- 
tial food, such as raw oats and beans with hay. But within 
a few years there have been several attempts to show that 
these articles are improved by cooking. It has been argued 
that steaming or boiling partially digests the food, or renders 
it more easy of digestion. 

It is Honsense to say that cooking is digestion. The 
stomach is not a boiler. It does its work in a way of its 
own, not to be imitated by any culinary process. 

Food w^iich has been softened by steaming, maceration, or 
boiling, may possibly be more quickly digested. The nutri 
tive matter may be more rapidly and more easily extracted 



238 STABLE ECONOMY. 

from food after this preparation. Granting that it is so, there 
is still room, I think, for doubting whether it is advantageous 
to have all the food rapidly digested. Stablemen, who ought 
to know best, admit the propriety of giving one feed of boiled 
food every day during cold weather. But they declare that 
more sickens the horse, and makes him soft ; he perspires 
profusely, and his energy is soon exhausted. This refers 
only to horses of fast work, in constant employment. 

The opinions of stablemen on this subject have been much 
ridiculed. They are too apt to theorize. Instead of telling 
what they see, they tell what they think. They contend that 
hard food produces hard flesh, and everybody knows that no 
horse is at his best when his flesh is soft. This is a fine 
opening for a mere theorist, who knows anything about anat- 
omy. Instead of seeking the foundation of the theory, he 
attacks the theory itself. " This notion about hard food,* 
he says, " is all nonsense. All the food, whether hard or 
soft, must become a fluid before it can form any part of the 
system. Therefore, the softer it is when given, the sooner is 
it dissolved." 

It is quite true, and easily proved, that no food can afford 
nourishment till it assumes a fluid form. But this is not the 
way to settle the question. Some men are such inveterate 
theorists that they always argue when they ought only to ex- 
periment. 

Place two or more horses, similar in size, age, condition, 
power, and breeding, at the same work and in the same sta- 
ble. To one give the food all soft, to another all hard, and 
to a third give it partly hard and partly soft. Continue the 
experiment for a month, and then reverse it, by giving to one 
the food which was given to another. Observe the condition 
of the horses from beginning to end, and be careful that the 
result is not influenced by some circumstances not operating 
equally upon all. One might catch cold, fall lame or sick, 
and he would not be a fair subject for comparison. This is 
the proper way to decide the matter. If conjecture should 
settle it, conjecture is easily made. Thus, soft food contains 
a deal of water ; probably this water enters the system along 
with the nutritive matter, and though it may fill up the tis- 
sues, and produce plumpness, yet it confers no vigor. The 
nutritive matter which has been ohtained from this soft, wa- 
tery food, has entered the system too rapidly — before it has 
been sufficiently animalized to form any durable part of th« 
system. I is, therefore, soon and easily evacuated. Ima 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 239 

gine this to be true — it is very like the stuff found in the 
treatises on dietetics — and there is no difficuUy in seeing the 
superiority of hard food. Without any theory, however, 
upon the subject, appearances seem in favor of the common 
opinion. 

The continuous use of Hard Food is supposed to produce 
progressive increase of vigor for several months, or, accord- 
ing to some, for several years. Among stablemen it is a com 
mon way of recommending a horse, to say that he has got 
yearns hard keep in him. Nimrod has gone much further 
Speaking of post-horses, the work they do, sometimes sixty 
miles in a day, and the abuse they suffer from exposure to 
the weather, from bad stables, and bad grooms, he alludes to 
their condition, and asks how it is that, in defiance of such 
hard upage, they look so well and do so much. " Is it," he 
says, " their natural physical strength ? Is it the goodness 
of their nature ? My reasoning faculty tells me it is neither 
— they would both fail. No ! it is solely to be attributed to 
the six, eight, ten, twelve, perhaps fourteen years' hard meat 
which they have got in them — to that consolidation of flesh, 
that invig^orating of muscle, that stimulus to their nature, 
which this high keep has imparted to them — which give 
them, as it were, a preternatural power." 

Had Nimrod always M-ritten thus, he should never have 
been quoted by me. There is not, in all his letters, another 
passage so remarkable for bad reasoning and bad writing. 
No one ever knew a post-horse twelve or fourteen years on 
the road without interruption. If he had occasionally to per- 
form a journey of sixty miles in one day, he would often, in 
the course of so many years, require to be thrown off work 
for several successive weeks, either for lameness or for sick- 
ness ; and every time such a horse is idle for a number of 
weeks, he loses all the vigor which previous work and solid 
food had conferred. 

When horses are well fed, they are generally well worked. 
In the course of time they acquire strength and endurance, 
which the undomesticated horse can never rival. Solid food 
has perhaps a good deal to do in the production of such vigor, 
but the work has much more. Without work, no kind nar 
quantity of food will make a hunter or a racer. To encounter 
extraordinary labor, the horse must be trained to it ; and, while 
training, he must be fed on solid food, or at least upon rich 
food. 

It appears that solid is better than soft food for such work , 



240 STABLB ECONOMY. 

but how long the horse must be accustomed to this hard food 
before he becomes as vigorous as it can make him, is still an 
undecided question. The improvement is progTessi\»e, but it 
must have some limits. So far as I have been able to observe, 
it appears that in one year judicious feeding and work will in 
all cases render a mature horse as fit for his work as he will 
ever be. Many can be seasoned in less than three months, 
and a great number receive all the improvement of which they 
are susceptible in less than six ; I do not believe that any 
mature horse improves after he has been on solid food and in 
work for one year, and this period includes the time allotted 
to training. 

A Mixed Diet is, in some cases, better than that composed 
of only two or three articles. Oats and hay form the ordinary 
food of stabled horses. In summer, a little grass is frequently 
added, and in winter, roots. But a great number of horses 
kept in towns receive nothing but oats and hay all the year 
round. For those that do only moderate work, these two 
articles, with a weekly feed of bran, seem to be sufficient. 
But others, whose work is more laborious, and often perform- 
ed in stormy weather, are, I think, the better of a more com- 
plicated diet, more especially when the ordinary food is not 
of the best quality. Beans form a third article, and to hard- 
working horses they are almost indispensable. During the 
trying months of winter, the diet may be still further varied 
by barley, or wheat, or rye. These may be boiled, and given 
only once a day, or they may enter into every feed. The 
change should be made slowly ; the new articles, at first, not 
exceeding a fourth or fifth part of the whole, and an equal 
quantity of the ordinary food being withheld. As the horse 
becomes used to them, the quantity may increase, if a larger 
quantity be deemed useful. 

The horses to whom a mixed diet is most necessary, are 
those that perform the severest work. The principal advan- 
tage derived from the combination of several articles, is that 
of tempting the horses to feed more heartily. They eat more 
of this mixed food thdn of the simple, because one or more 
of the articles are new to them. The horses, therefore, main 
tain their condition better. It may also be. that the use ot 
several articles enables the system to obtain that from one 
which can not be furnished by another. 

Changes of Diet. — After the horse has been accustomed 
to a certain kind or mixture of food, it is not to be suddenly 
changed. By inattention to this, many errors prevail re 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 241 

garding a horse's food. It is extensively believed that boiled 
food, barley, carrots, and some other articles, produce purga- 
tion — that raw wheat is poisonous — that peas swell so much 
as to burst the stomach — that potatoes, and many other things, 
are flatulent. 

The truth is, a sudden change of diet produces evils which 
would not occur were the change made with care. The most 
frequent result of a change is colic, next to that purgation, 
and after these come founder, surfeit, weed, constipation, and 
apoplexy. Some of these, perhaps the whole of them except 
purgation, may arise as often from the horse eating too much, 
as from the sudden change. But it appears quite certain that 
the stomach and bowels require some little time to adapt them- 
selves to articles upon which they have not been accustomed 
to act. The horse eats too much, because the new article is 
more palatable than his ordinary food ; and the groom often 
gives too much without knowing it ; he gives barley and beans 
in the same measure that he gives oats. These articles, and 
wheat, are much heavier in proportion to their bulk. An 
equal weight of oats might not be eaten, though it were given, 
and the horse would suffer no evil ; but if the horse is not 
used to beans or barley, he will eat a greater weight of those 
than of his oats ; if an equal quantity, by weight, were given, 
the horse would be in less danger ; but still it is not safe sud- 
denly to substitute one article for another. 

If it were determined to use a certain portion of barley in- 
stead of oats, say an equal quantity of each, the change is not 
to be made in one day nor in one week. At first give the 
barley in only one of the daily feeds, and in small quantity, 
so that, during the first week, one feed will consist of three 
parts oats, and one part barley — the other feeds will be the 
same as usual ; in the second week, one feed will be half oats 
and half barley ; in the third week, give two of those feeds 
every day ; in the next, three, and so on till the horses receive 
the allotted quantity. 

One dose of physic, perhaps two, may be useful when the 
diet is altered ; but if the horses be seasoned, and in full work, 
it is seldom necessary. It is most required when the food is 
richer and more constipating than that to which they have 
been used. 

The Quantity of Food may be insufficient, or it may be 
in excess. The consumption is influenced by the work, the 
weather, the horse's condition, age, temper, form, and health •, 

21 



242 STABLE ECONOMY 

these circumstances, especially the work, must regulate the 
allowance. 

When the horse has to work as much and as often as he it 
able, his allowance of food should be unlimited. 

When the work is such as to destroy the legs more than i 
exhausts the system, the food must be given with some re 
Rtriction, unless the horse be a poor eater. 

When the work is moderate, or less than moderate, a good 
feeder will eat too much. 

When the weather is cold, horses that are much exposed 
to it require more food than when the weather is warm. 

When the horse is in good working condition, he needs less 
food than while he is only getting into condition. 

Young, growing horses require a little more food than those 
of mature age ; but, as they are not fit for full work, the dif- 
ference is not great. 

Old horses, those that have begun to decline in vigor, re- 
quire more food than the young or the matured. 

Hot-tempered, irritable horses seldom feed well ; but those 
that have good appetites require more food to keep them in 
condition, than others of quiet and calm disposition. 

Small-bellied, narrow-chested horses require more food 
than those of deep and round carcass ; but few of them eat 
enough to maintain them in condition for full work. 

Lame, greasy-heeled, and harness-galled horses require an 
extra allowance of food to keep them in working condition. 

Sickness, fevers, inflammations, all diseases which influence 
health so much as to throw the horse ofT work, demand, with 
few exceptions, a spare diet, which, in general, consists of 
bran-mashes, grass, carrots, and hay. 

Deficiency of Food. — When the owner can afTord to feed 
his horse, he generally allows him sufficient. He soons dis- 
covers that the work can not be done without it. He may 
grudge the eost of keeping, but he soon finds that it is easier 
to buy food than to buy horses. Starvation and hard work 
quickly wear them out. Though nobody who can avoid it 
will starve his working horses, yet many think it no sin to 
starve idle horses. Colts, before they come into use, and 
horses thrown out of work by lameness or other causes, are 
often very ill fed, or, rather, they are not fed at all. The 
privations of a farmer's stock during winter may not in every 
case be avoidable, and when they can not be cured they must 
be endured. But the allowance of food is often reduced too 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 243 

much, not because there is little to give, but because it la 
thought unnecessary or wasteful to give more. 

Both young and old horses suffer more mischief from want 
of sufficient food than is generally supposed. The young, 
however, suffer most. Starvation checks the growth and 
destroys the shape. Horses that have been ill-fed when young, 
are almost invariably small, long-legged, light-carcassed, and 
narrow-chested. Some of them have a good deal of energy, 
but all are soon exhausted, unfit for protracted exertion. 
Grown-up horses, when much reduced by deficient nourish- 
ment, require more food to put them into working order than 
would have kept them for two or three months in the condi- 
tion they require to possess when going into work. If the 
horses are to be idle for twelve months, it may perhaps be 
cheaper to let them get very lean than to keep them plump ; 
but for a period of three or four months, during which farm 
and some other horses are idle or nearly so, it is cheaper to 
keep as much flesh upon them as they will need at the com 
mencement of their labor. 

When the horse is starved, besides losing strength and 
flesh, his bowels get full of worms, and his skin covered witl 
lice. Very often he takes mange, and sometimes he does no 
moult, or the hair falls suddenly and entirely off, leaving th« 
skin nearly bald for a long time. The skin of an ill-fed horsi. 
is always rigid, sticking to the ribs, and the hair dull, staring, 
soft, dead-like. I have never seen anything like permanehi 
evil arising from temporary starvation of mature horses. If 
not famished to death, they recover strength and animation 
upon good and sufficient feeding. But starvation always spoils' 
the shape of a growing horse. 

Excess of Food. — When the supply of food is greater than 
the work demands, the horse becomes fat. The superfluous 
nutriment is no? all wasted. The system does not require it 
at the time, but it may at some other. To provide against an 
increased demand or a deficient supply, this redundant nutri 
ment is stored away. It is converted into fat and deposited 
into various parts of the body ; some is laid under the skin, 
some among the muscles, but the largest quantity is found 
among the intestines and inside the belly. When wanted, 
this fat is reconverted into blood. 

Slow-working horses may be fat and yet not unfit for work ; 
but the weight of the fat is a serious encumbrance to fast« 
workers, and its situation impedes the action of important 
organs, particularly the lungs Horses at full and fast work 



244 STABLE ECONOMY. 

never accumulate fat ; they can not eat too much. When the 
work is irregular and fast, the horse sometimes idle and some- 
times tasked to the utmost, he may eat too much. He may 
become fat and unfit to do his work, which is the most ruinous 
of all work. 

To keep a horse in condition for fast work, his work should 
be regular, and when it can not, his food should be given in 
such measured quantities that it will not make him fat. 

A sudden change from a poor to a rich diet does not at once 
produce fatness. It is more apt to produce plethora, redun- 
dancy of blood. The stomach and bowels, previously accus 
tomed to economize the food, and to extract all the nutriment 
it was capable of yielding, continue to act upon the rich food 
with equal vigor. A large quantity of blood is made, more 
than the system can easily dispose of. Were the horse 
gradually inured to the rich food, there would be time to make 
the necessary arrangements for converting the superfluous 
nutriment into fat. But the sudden change fills the system 
with blood. This often happens to cattle and sheep, but the 
horse does not suffer in the same way as these animals. 
Sheep and young oxen, after entering a luxuriant spring pas- 
ture, take what is called the blood. All at once they become 
very ill ; some part of the body is swelled, puffy as if it con 
tained air : in two or three hours the beast is dead. Upon 
dissection, a large quantity of blood, black and decomposed, 
is found in the cellular tissue, where, in life, the swelling ap- 
peared. This, if ever it occur in the horse, is exceedingly 
rare. In him, plethora seems to create a strong disposition to 
inflammation in the eyes, the feet, and the lungs. Sometimes 
an eruption appears on the skin ; this is termed a surfeit heat. 
The hair often falls off in patches, and the skin beneath is 
raw or pimpled ; these are termed surfeit blotches. The 
horse is prone to grease. Those of the heavy-draught breed 
often have what in some places is termed a weed, in others 
a shoot of grease, in others still, a stroke of water-farcy. One 
of the legs, generally a hind-leg, swells suddenly ; it is pain- 
ful ; it is lame ; pressure inside the thigh in the course of the 
vein, produces great pain ; the horse is a little fevered. In a 
few cases, among the same kind of horses, there are numerous 
puffy, painless tumors all over the body, especially about the 
eyes, m'Jizzle, belly, and legs. This is most commonly termed 
water-farcy. The proper name is acute anasarca. The horse 
may be left well, or apparently well at night ; in the morning 
he is found with his eyes closed, buried in soh pitting tumora 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 245 

and his muzzle so much swelled that he can not open his 
mouth. All these evils are sudden in their attack. They 
may arise from other causes ; but plethora suddenly attained 
is the most common cause ; and is the result of feeding be- 
yond the work. 

Plethora may be produced without any alteration in the 
quantity or quality of the diet. If the horse be suddenly 
thrown out of full work, and receive all the food to which he 
has been accustomed, the result will be very nearly the same 
as if he were put upon a richer diet. It must be remembered 
that excess in the supply is excess only when it is greater 
than the work demands. An idle horse may be eating no 
more than a working horse, or he may be eating less, yet it 
may be too much. 

The symptoms of plethora are easily recognised before it 
has produced or contributed to the production of any cutane- 
ous, anasarcous, or inflammatory disease. For one, two or 
more days the horse is somewhat dull ; he eats his grain, 
perhaps, but refuses his hay ; he drinks much, his coat is 
dry ; on some places, across the loins, the face, and the poll, 
it is soft and staring ; the eye is red, often yellowish ; the 
mouth hot and dry ; the bowels costive ; the urine high- 
colored. When the stables are shut, the horse sweats ; when 
open, he shivers, or his coat starts on end. If put to work, 
he is feeble and without animation ; he soon perspires, and 
he is soon exhausted. In this febrile state he may remain 
for several days. Perspiration seems to relieve him a little ; 
but as the horse eats little, the natural cure is probably per- 
formed by refusing to take more nutriment till the superfluity 
be consumed. When the digestive organs continue to main- 
tain their power, the appetite is not impaired, and the horse, 
after pining two or three days, or a longer time, in the ple- 
thoric fever, suffers from an attack of inflammation, or some 
of the other evils already mentioned fall upon him. Swelled 
legs and thrushy frogs are among the earliest and least seri- 
ous consequences. 

The treatment of plethora is very simple. Starvation alone 
will effect a cure. Bleeding averts its consequences at once ; 
but, in general, this operation is not imperiously demanded. 
In ordinary cases, it is enough to diminish or withhold the 
allowance of grain, to give a little green food, carrots, cr 
bran-mashes ; as medicine, a diuretic or an alterative may be 
given, or a dose of physic, which is better than anything else 
and when the horse can he spared, it should be given. A 

21* 



246 STABLE ECONOMY. 

gentle sweat is also a good remedy. As the horse recovers 
his spirits, let him return by degrees to the diet which his 
work demands. 

To prevent plethora, it is customary, in hunting and other 
stables where the work is only occasional, yet very severe 
and requiring a liberal diet, to give an alterative now and 
then. Black antimony, nitre and sulphur, four drachms of 
each, form a useful alterative for blank days. Hunters of 
keen appetite, and legs which will not stand full work, are 
not easily kept in order : they may have a ball every week, 
or twice a week during the working season. It should bo 
given an hour before the last feed, in a little bran-mash. On 
the day before work, it is forbidden. 

Influenza and plethora* are often confounded. The symp- 
toms of plethora are very like those which we have at the 
beginning of influenza ; but the treatment is different, and 
distinction must be made. If the symptoms of plethora ap- 
pear without any change in the diet, or work sufficient to ac- 
count for them, it is very likely the horse is taking the in- 
fluenza, which, in many stables, is usually called the dis- 
temper. A veterinarian ought to be consulted. Influenza is 
in general accompanied by great weakness, often some sore- 
ness of the throat, a little cough, a watery discharge from the 
nose, swelling of the eyelids, stiflTness, a peculiar state of the 
pulse, and several other symptoms by which the veterinarian 
can distinguish it from plethora. 

Humors. — Everybody has heard of " humors flying about 
the horse." It is an old stable phrase, and still a great favor- 
ite. The horse is not well, yet he is not ill. There is al- 
ways something wrong with him. One month he has swelled 
legs, another he has inflamed eyes, another he has some tu- 
mors about him, or some eruption on the skin, and so on all 
the year through. He is hardly cured of one disease till he 
is attacked by some other ; and perhaps he never does any 
good till he changes hands, when he soon becomes an excel- 
lent horse, always ready for his food and for his work. This 
often happens. Plethora, repeatedly excited, is the cause. 

The stabling, or the grooming, may have been bad ; the 
horse unequally fed, or irregularly worked — some weeks 
half-starved, others surfeited to plethora — sometimes idle for 
•. month, and sometimes over-worked for a month. He does 

• I ought sooner to have mentioned, that among stablemen plethora is 
tMialiy termed foulness. The horse is said to be foul. I have rejected thit 
me, because, in Scotland, a glaudered horse is termed foul. 



PRACTICE OF FEEDING. 247 

bett)^r, indeed quite well, when he is properly worked and 
properly fed. The humors are blamed. According to the 
groom there is some bad humor flying about the horse. He 
gives his drugs to sweeten the blood, puts in rowels to drain 
off impurities, and plays numberless other tricks, such as 
ignorance alone could suggest. Little, in truth, is required 
but to get rid of that which plethora has already produced, 
and subsequently to give regularity to the work and to the 
feeding, and to proportion the one to the other. 

PRACTICE OF FEEDING. 

In well-managed stables the practice of feeding is regula- 
ted by the principles, so far, at least, as they are understood. 
Nevertheless it may be useful to give a short account of the 
matters and modes of feeding in reference to different kinds 
of horses. I shall here state the general mode, so far as I 
have been able to learn it, and give a few examples. 

The Farm-Horse is fed on oats, meal-seeds, corn-dust, 
barley-dust, beans, barley, hay, roots, straw, and grass. The 
grain is given raw and boiled, whole, bruised, or ground, and 
with or without a masticant.* Wheat is seldom used, beans 
only when the work is very laborious, and bran rarely except 
to sick horses. The fodder varies with the work and the 
season. In winter it consists of hay, and the different kinds 
of straw, including that of beans and peas. The quantity is 
unlimited, and it is rarely cut into chaff. Rye-grass, clover 
and tares, are given while they are in season, to the exclusion 
of other fodder. They are given in the stable or in the field, 
and some horses are partly soiled and partly pastured. The 
quantity of grain varies with the work and the size of the 
horse. From fourteen to sixteen pounds is considered a 
liberal allowance for a large horse in full work. The night 
feed is vsually boiled so soon as grass fails. The quantity 
diminishes as the days shorten. In some places the grain is 
altogether withheld during a part of the winter, fodder being 
given in the day, and some boiled roots at night. 

Some farmers never give more than ten pounds of grain 
per day. It is not possible to state the proper allowance. In 
all cases the horse himself soon tells whether he is getting 
too much or too little. He should be kept rather above than 

• Masticant. — Any article — such as cut fodder, bran-chaff, hay-seeds, ot 
meal-seeds — which ensures mastication of the grain with which it is min- 
gled. 



848 STABLE ElONOMT. 

under his work ; and even when idle, or nearly so, he should 

not lose flesh. If he be half-starved in winter, the spring 
will find him very unfit for the labor which it brings, and it 
costs more to put flesh on the horse than to keep it on. 

" Mr. Harper of Bank Hill, Lancashire, ploughs seven acres 
per week the year through, on strong land, with three horses, 
each of which receive two bushels of oats per week, with 
hay during the winter six months, and during the remainder 
of the year one bushel of oats with green food. 

" Mr. Ellam of Glynde, in Sussex, gives two bushels of 
oats, with peas-haulm, or straw, during thirty winter weeks ; 
and one bushel of oats, with green food, in summer."* 

In Scotland, farm-horses are usually put upon hard food 
by the beginning of October, receiving hay and a medium 
allowance of oats, from six to nine pounds. In the months 
of December and January, the hay gives place to straw, and 
the oats are still farther reduced. In February, hay and a 
full allowance of oats are given, and form the most of the 
food till the commencement of June, when grass comes in. 
The allowance of oats is then reduced, and the grass is either 
given in the stable or in the field. f 

As winter food. Professor Low recommends cut-hay, cut- 
straw, bruised or coarsely-ground grain, and cooked potatoes, 
in equal proportion by weight. Of this mixture he says 30 to 
35 pounds, or, on an average, 32-^ pounds, will be sufficient 
for any horse during the twenty-four hours. 

In the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, No. 21, the fol- 
lowing mixture, in which there is no hay, is recommended 
for its economy. The horse is fed thrice, receiving.at each 
time fifteen pounds : — 

m the morning he gets 5 .^| ^^f' "^ ^^\ ^"^ ^^^^ °^^^^ °^^"^ ""'^ 
a s. -x -itx cc cut-Straw. 

oat and bean meal, with 
cut-straw. 
1| " oat and bean meal, 
At night .... ^2 " cut-straw, and 

( 11| " steamed potatoes. 

It is unnecessary accuracy to speak of straw or potatoes 
by half pounds. Two or three pounds, more or lers of 
either, produce little actual, and no appreciable difference on 
the horse. 

In many, or most of the places in this neighborhood, farm 
horses are fed four or five times while working nine or tei 

* Complete Grazier, 181. Agricultural Survey of Sussex, pp. 378, 381. 
t Low's Elements of Agriculture. 



heget.^,3| 
At mid-day, ... \ ^^ 



PRACTICE OF FEEDING. 249 

hours per day. In the morning, about five o'clock, they are 
fed with grain ; they go to work till eight, when they are fed 
again, sometimes on boiled roots, to which, corn-dust, light 
oats, or meal-seeds may be added, and sometimes on raw 
grain ; they work from nine till twelve or one — are fed a third 
time ; return to work till six or seven — are fed a fourth time, 
generally on boiled food, unless there be grass. Some give 
a small quantity of grain about nine or ten o'clock, which 
forms a fifth feed, but this is not common. 

The farmers hereabout reserve the light husky oats for 
home consumption. It is very well to do so, for they answer 
as well as any others, if given in sufficient quantity. But I 
often see much of this grain wasted. It is boiled with roots, 
or it is scattered raw upon the boiled food and given along 
with it. It does not soon burst in boiling, and the horse 
swallows it whole. Such oats should either be bruised by 
the rollers, or given raw, with a little chafT. 

[The best food for ordinary working-horses in America, is, 
as much good hay or grass as they will eat, corn-stalks or 
blades, or for the want of these, straw, and a mixture of from 
16 to 24 quarts per day, of about half and half of oats and 
the better quality of wheat bran. When the horse is seven 
years old past, two to four quarts of corn or hommony or meal 
ground from the corn and cob is preferable to the pure grain. 
Two to four quarts of wheat, barley, rye, buckwheat, peas, or 
beans, either whole or ground, may be substituted for the 
corn. A pint of oil meal or a gill of flax-seed mixed with the 
other food is very good for a relish, especially in keeping up 
a healthy system and the bowels open, and in giving the hair 
a fine glossy appearance. Potatoes and other roots, unless 
choked, do not seem to be of much benefit in this climate, 
especially in winter — they lie cold upon the stomach and 
subject the horse to scouring ; besides they are too watery 
for a hard-working animal. Corn is fed too much at the 
south and west. It makes horses fat, but can not give them 
that hard, muscular flesh which oats do ; hence their softness 
and want of endurance in general work and on the road, in 
comparison with northern and eastern horses, reared and fed 
on oats and more nutricious grasses.] 

The cost of keeping farm-horses has been variously estima- 
ted at from 15 to 40 pounds per year. There is, without 
doubt, a good deal of difierence in different places, dependent 
upon the size and work of the horse, and also upon the 
varying price of his food. Some feed at much less cost than 



250 STABLE ECONOMY. . 

Others, by employing cheap substitutes during the high price 
of any article of ordinary consumption. When oats are dear, 
wheat, barley, beans, or roots, may partly or wholly supply 
their place, and hay may be entirely withheld if good straw 
can be procured. It has been boasted that farm-horses may 
be kept at summer work on cut green food, with almost no 
grain. What the owner might call work is not known. But 
in this country grass alone will not produce workable horses. 
If food is not given, work can not be taken. Every man 
who has a horse has it in his power to starve the animal ; 
but that, I should think, can afford little matter for exulta- 
tion. 

Cart-Horses. — The cart-horses employed about towns 
are fed on oats, beans, bran, and hay. Meal seeds, barley, 
and corn-dusts, hay-seeds, and roots, are also in common use. 
In winter, one feed is generally boiled and given the last at 
night. If any be left, it is given the first in the morning. It 
usually consists of beans and turnips, or barley and beans, to 
which bran and hay, seed or barn chaff, are added. Straw is 
almost never used as fodder for these horses. Hay is given 
in unmeasured quantity, and it is seldom cut into chaff. In 
summer, cut grass is used instead of hay, without any altera- 
tion in the quantity of grain ; but boiled food is abandoned as 
the grass comes in. Some give boiled food every Sunday, 
once a day in summer, and twice in winter. It is supposed 
to be less constipating than raw grain for the day of rest. 
Raw beans, with dry bran, form the manger food of a great 
many cart-horses during the winter. The last feed is boiled 
with turnips and hay seed, and the rack is filled with hay. 
Meal seeds are often given along with oats or beans, and some- 
times alone. 

The quantity of fodder is seldom limited. The horse eats 
as much as he pleases, or as much as his owner can afford. 
It will probably vary from 15 to 30 pounds in the twenty-four 
hours. The quantity of grain varies from 12 to 16 pounds. 
The oats and beans are seldom bruised. 

When the work is regular, the horses are usually fed three 
times in the stable, and not at all in the yoke. When irreg- 
ular, and having many stoppages, the carter generally takes 
out a small bundle of hay and a little grain along with the 
horse. The grain is given in a nose-bag, a little at a time 
and often, when the horse stands. The hay is carried in a 
«ack, and the carter often gives a little from his hand as the 



PRACTICE OF FEEDING. 251 

horse travels. When stopping, the sack is thrown before him, 
or attached to the cart-shaft, and the horse helps himself. 

Messrs. Wiggins of London keep upward of 300 cart-hor- 
ses, which are nearly all of the largest size. The grain con- 
sists of oats, barley, beans, pease, and bran. In summer, oats 
are preferred to beans ; and in spring, barley is supposed to 
be better than either. But the choice is determined by the 
price. It is all given by weight, and whichever kind of grain 
be used, no difference is made in the quantity. When beans 
are used, an extra allowance of bran is necessary to keep the 
bowels in order. Swedish turnips and carrots are given oc- 
casionally. The fodder consists of clover, or saintfoin hay, 
and straw. 

The beans are bruised, the oats sometimes coarsely ground, 
and the barley germinated. The fodder is all cut into chaff. 
The bruising and cutting are performed by machinery, which 
is worked by a single horse. Two lads, one to feed the ma- 
chine, and one to unbind and deliver the hay, cut a load in 
three hours. It does not appear that any of the food is boiled. 

The daily quantity allowed to each horse varies a little with 
his size. The largest receive about 18 pounds of grain, 16 
of hay, 4 of straw, and 2 of bran ; in all, 40 pounds. For 
some of the horses, 33 or 36 pounds of this mixture is found 
sufficient. The whole is given as manger-food. There is 
no rack fodder.* 

Messrs. Hanhury <^ Trueman, London, keep above 80 hor- 
ses, all of large size. They are fed on oats, beans, hay, and 
straw. In summer, beans are denied. The oats and beans 
are bruised, the fodder all cut. The daily allowance to each 
horse consists of oats 14 pounds, beans 1, with 18 of fodder, 
in v'hich there is one pound of straw to every eight of hay. 
The food is never cooked. Salt is given every week on Sat- 
urday night and Sunday morning, four ounces at a time. In 
this way it relaxes the bowels. f 

Mr. John Brown of Glasgow. — The cart-horses are fed 
three times a day. They receive oats and a few beans in the 
morning before going to work, which, in summer, is at six 
o'clock, in winter at seven. They come in at nine and get 
another feed, also of oats and beans. They return to work 
at ten, and do not come home till six, often not so soon. The 
third feed consists of beans, barley, and hay-seed, all boiled 

* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, No. 1 1 . British Husbandry, vol. i., p 
141. 
t Quarterly Journal of Apiculture, No. 11 



253 STABLE ECONOMY. 

together and given warm The fodder consists entirely of 
hay, except for a short time in summer, when cut grass is 
given. The fodder is not limited ; each horse is permitted to 
consume as much as he pleases. Few in the twenty-four 
hours use more than sixteen pounds. In winter, a few Swe- 
dish turnips are added to the other boiled articles. 

These horses are in excellent condition all the year. They 
work from ten to twelve hours per day. I have known them 
out occasionally for fourteen. They are employed iy carting 
goods to short distances. The draught is seldom more than 
25 cwt. They receive neither fodder nor grain while in the 
yoke. Each driver has the stable management of his own 
horse. The whole are superintended by a foreman, who 
measures out the grain. The horses' legs and feet are washed 
and dried every night after work. The stables are visited 
every morning by a veterinary surgeon. 

Messrs. J. 6f W. Harvey, Distillers, near Glasgow. — The 
cart-horses are fed on oats, beans, barley, hay-seed, hay, and 
cut grass. The grain is not bruised, and the fodder is not 
cut. In winter the last feed is boiled, and in summer grass 
renders boiling unnecessary. 

The allowance per week to each horse is three bushels of 
oats and half a bushel of beans, besides the boiled food, 
which consists of barley, beans, and hay-seed. One bushel 
of each feeds ten horses. Few consume more than half a 
stone (7 lbs.) of hay per day, but the quantity of grain is un- 
commonly large. They are fed four times. They are em- 
ployed chiefly on the road, traveUing from 8 to 10 or 11 hours 
per day, at from 3^ to 4 miles an hour, with a draught of 30 
to 35 cwt., cart included. 

Carriage, Gig, Post, Noddy, Cab, Omnibus, and Street- 
Coach Horses. — All these, with few exceptions, have for many 
years been fed in the same way, and upon the same articles 
as at present. In general they receive three or four feeds per 
day, consisting of oats and beans, unbroken and uncooked. 
The quantity varies from 12 to 16 pounds ; and the fodder, 
of which hay is the only kind, is rarely limited. It is not cut. 
During the summer some grass is given, and in winter it is 
customary to give a large bran-mash instead of grain, once 
a-week, generally on Saturday night if the horse be idle on 
Sunday. The horses that stand in the streets are fed three 
times in the stable, and get some grain and hay in the yoke. 

In large posting and omnibus studs some alteration has ta- 
iten place. 1 he horses are fed according to that system 



PRACTICE OF FEEDING. 253 

wliicli has been most extensively adopted by large coach pro- 
prietors. 

Mail, Stage, and Fast-Boat Horses. — Many of these 
horses are fed in the old way. In winter they receive oats, 
beans, bran, and hay; in summer, oats, beans, hay, and grass, 
u^I given without preparation, and only three times a day. 
But a new mode has been much adopted by the owners of 
nearly all the large studs. The food consists of more arti- 
cles ;.it is often prepared with a degree of care that in the 
good old times would have been deemed preposterously troub- 
lesome ; the horses are fed oftener, and articles are used which 
many still deem unfit for horses, and even poisonous. 

Mr. Lyoji of Glasgow was the first to introduce the hay-cut- 
ting system into the west of Scotland. It has been practised 
in his establishment for fifteen years back. For a long while 
he bruised the oats and split the beans, but now both are giv- 
en entire. The chaff, without a portion of which grain is 
rarely given, ensures the mastication of these articles. 

The ordinary feeding consists of oats, beans, and hay ; but 
barley is often given both raw and boiled. Every horse re- 
ceives about six or seven pounds of rack hay at night. There 
are five feeding hours ; the first at six, the others at nine, one, 
five, and eight. At each time the horse receives one half-peck 
of a mixture which usually contains 5 bushels of oats, one of 
beans, and 6 of chaff*. The last is in heaped measure. In 
five feeds of this mixture, there are one peck and a quarter of 
grain, and as much chaff". The daily allowance will therefore 
be, of fodder, cut and uncut, about 9 or 10 pounds, and of 
grain about 13 or 14 pounds. The quantity, however, is not 
precisely limited. Some horses will eat less, and others 
more. They get what they will take, the feeder being care- 
ful not to give more at one time than the horse will eat. 

In winter the horses get boiled food every night. It is com- 
posed of barley and beans, to which a few turnips are some- 
times added. Three measures of barley and one of beans go 
over as many horses as four of oats and one of beans. Some 
hay chaff" is added, and this mixture forms the fifth feed. 
Carrots are given raw during the day ; but when considerably 
dearer than turnips, turnips supply their place. Grass is some- 
limes given in summer, but not generally. A certain quantity 
is taken in every morning for the sick, the feeble, and the 
lame ; if not all consumed by these, the remainder is given to 
others- 

32 



254 STABLE ECONOMY. 

When there is neither grass, carrots, nor any boiled food, 
the horses receive a large warm mash of bran on Saturday 
night. They work none on Sunday. Salt is not generally 
used ; never except for the lick or the staling-evil, and then a 
lump of rock-salt is placed in the manger. 

Barley is sometimes given raw. The mixture then con- 
sists of oats six bushels, of beans three, of barley three, and 
of chaff six. The horses are fed the same number of times, 
and from the same measure. This mixture is most esteemed 
when the work is more than usually laborious. 

Wheat is sometimes used ; six bushels of chaff, six of oats, 
three of beans, and three of wheat, form the wheat mixture, 
which is given in the same way as the others. 

Mr. Lyon has tried meal-seeds. The feeding contained 
eight bushels of chaff, six of oats, four of barley, four of 
beans, and three of meal-seeds. In this mixture, there is a 
larger proportion of grain ; but the work was severe, for there 
were few spare horses. 

In dear hay seasons Mr. Lyon has given straw chaff, but 
he thinks it is not profitable while good hay is to be obtained 
at a moderate price. The hay-seed is all sold. The horses 
are always in excellent condition. Their legs are never 
washed without permission. They are watered four or five 
times a day. They stand always on litter, except on working 
days, when the litter is entirely taken from the stall, until the 
horse returns from work. Much straw is saved by this ar- 
rangement, but horses that will not urinate on the bare stones 
may be sent to the road with a full bladder. From this, how- 
ever, I have not observed any injury. The foreman resides 
in the stable-yard. He is authorized to hire and discharge 
strappers. The stud is visited every morning by a veterinary 
surgeon, and a stable, containing three loose boxes, is set 
apart for sick and lame horses. 

Mr. Walker of Glasgow gives his stage-coach horses five 
feeds per day. They are fed at six, nine, twelve, four, and 
half-past six, or at seven. In winter the first four feeds con- 
sist of oats and beans, which are given by measure. Eleven 
of the feeds form one imperial bushel. The quantity of beans 
varies according to the condition of the horses, and the qual- 
ity of the oats. Sometimes less than a fourth of the feed is 
beans ; at other times the oats and beans are in equal propor- 
tions. The last feed is boiled, and generally composed of 
barley three, and beans two. Straw or hay chaff, and some- 
times turnips, are added. Of the beans and barley mixed. 



PRACTICE OF FEEDING. 253 

forty feeds go as far as fifty of the oat and bean mixture. The 
fodder, clover, and rye-grass hay, is given in the racks without 
limitation. Some hay, and occasionally straw, is cut into 
chaff for mixing with the grain, which is not bruised. In win- 
ter, delicate horses get carrots. As summer approaches, the 
boiled food is given up. For a while it is given every other 
night, then twice a week, then once, and at last it is abandoned 
altogether. In autumn it is introduced in the same gradual 
manner; grass is very little used. It is consumed chiefly 
by the defective or spare horses, who get a little only while it 
is good. 

Although the grain is given at regular hours, and in meas- 
ured quantities, the horses receive as much as they will eat. 
Some do not consume their allowance, and that which is left 
is given to others of keener appetite, or put into the boiler, and 
less is given out at the next feeding hour. All the horses have 
full work, many of them for part of the year running sixteen 
miles for six days a week at eight miles per hour in two sta- 
ges. The stables are good, and the stud is visited by .'a vet- 
erinarian every morning. The horses always stand on litter. 
Their legs are not washed in cold weather. In hot summers 
the horses are bathed all over after work. 

The late Mr. Peter Mein of Glasgow tried several modes 
of feeding. In winter he employed hay, and oat or wheat- 
straw, as fodder ; oats, beans, barley, wheat, and turnips, as 
grain. The fodder was all cut, the raw grain all bmised, the 
beans were given whole ; the wheat, barley, and turnips, were 
usually boiled. 

The horses were fed eight times every day ; the first feed 
was given at five in the morning, the last at ten in the evening. 
The daily allowance to each horse used to be eight pounds of 
fodder, and sixteen of grain. The fodder was one half straw, 
another half hay ; the grain, three fourths oats, and one fourth 
beans. They were always mixed, neither grain nor fodder 
being given alone. During cold weather, one feed of this mix- 
ture was withheld, and replaced by an equal quantity of boiled 
food, which consisted of beans, barley, and chaff; Swedish 
turnips were also used, but no carrots nor any bran, except to 
sick horses. The cooked food was given as the first after 
work ; horses that seemed very fond of it got another at night. 
In general, each horse got only one ration of boiled food in 
the twenty-four hours. Some grass was used in summer; 
while young it was given alone ; as it got old, hard, and dry, 
it was cut and mixed with the chaff and grain. When old 



256 STABLE ECONOMY. 

and not cut, the horses wasted much of it. Cutting prevent 
ed all waste. 

In the winter of 1836, the horses got no hay. Mr. Mein's 
stock was exhausted by the 20th of September, and at that 
time hay was both dear and bad. He used straw instead of 
hay, from the 20th of September till the 15th of May. Each 
horse got eight pounds, with sixteen pounds of grain, prepared 
and served in the same way as the hay. The allowance of 
turnips was rather larger. After May, good straw could not 
easily be procured, and from that time to July, 1837, one half 
of the fodder was given in hay. 

Mr. Mein tried raw wheat. He gave three pounds per day 
to each horse, deducting three pounds of oats. The horses 
worked and looked as well as usual, but their bowels seemed 
to be out of order, for the dung was pale, clay-like, and fetid. 
There was no other objection to the wheat. 

Mr. Croall of Edinburgh gives oats, beans, hay, grass, and 
carrots. The hay is all cut, and given along with the grain ; 
the oats are bruised, and the beans split or broken fresh every 
day. The winter allowance of grain is 14 pounds per day. 
The beans are one to three of the oats, by weight. In sum- 
mer only twelve pounds are given. 

Hunters. — The horses employed in the field vary so much 
in size and breeding, and are -treated so variously in different 
places, that it is difficult to give any useful account of the 
mode in which they are fed. Those who follow the hounds 
only once or twice a month usually do so upon their hack, an 
ordinary road-horse, whose labors as a hunter do not require 
any particular difference in his feeding. During the hunting 
season he may receive more than his usual allowance of 
grain, but in other respects he is treated as a saddle-horse. 
He is stabled all the year, and his work, never very great, is 
not such in winter as to demand the repose which is given to 
hunters for two or three months in summer. 

But in all hunting establishments the horses are treated in 
a different manner. Their labors for the season generally 
commence about the end of October or beginning of Novem- 
ber, and terminate in March or April. From this time till the 
month of July, when training for the ensuing winter commen- 
ces, the horses are idle, or nearly so. Hence there is much 
difference between the summer and the winter feeding. In 
winter the food consists of oats, beans, and hay ; carrots and 
barley are sometimes, though very seldom, added to these. 

But there are two modes of summering the hunter : by one 



PRACTICE OF FEEDING. 257 

he is turned to pasture, and fed entirely upon grass ; by anoth- 
er, he is kept almost constantly within doors, receiving a little 
grass, some hay, and a small allowance of grain. The last is 
the mode recommended and introduced by Nimrod. Former 
ly it was the custom to turn all hunters to grass as soon as 
hunting was over ; but in many parts ot England this practice 
has been abandoned. For a long time it was universal. It 
was supposed that the horses were as well at grass as they 
could be in the stable, and they were kept at much less cost. 
Possibly some people might believe that summer grazing was 
necessary for the horse's health, but that does not appear to 
have been insisted on until Nimrod began to deny the propri- 
ety of turning out. Numerous scribblers appeared to oppose 
him. It was contended that a summer's run at grass is abso- 
lutely necessary, exclusive of its economy. The labors of the 
winter, it was said, have shattered the constitution, the legs, 
and the feet. The horse has been injured by his work. Rest 
and his natural food alone can restore him to usefulness. The 
moisture of the ground is good for his hoofs, and the open air 
for his lungs. Grass is the most salubrious food the horse can 
have ; it is cooling, refreshing, alterative ; it allays the excite- 
ment produced by work and high keep ; it clears away obstruc- 
tions, sweetens the blood, relaxes the bowels, purges off the 
humors, renovates the whole body, and puts the inside to 
rights. Moreover, the repose which a horse obtains at grass, 
rectifies, braces, and strengthens, all the parts that his hard 
work had shaken and relaxed. Moreover, again, it would be 
the very death of a hunter, and very cruel, to keep him stabled 
all the year. 

I dare say it is evident that the most of this is sad non- 
sense. Grass and fresh air can be given in the stable quite as 
well as in the field. Moisture is easily applied to the feet ; and 
for rest, if rest be necessary, the stabled horse has decidedly 
the advantange. 

Objections to Grazing Hunters. — There are only two. The 
horse loses his hunting condition, and he acquires so much 
flesh that his legs and feet are apt to be injured in taking the 
superfluous flesh off him. It is true that a pasture may be so 
bare or so crowded that an accumulation of flesh or fat can 
not take place. The horse may even be starved to emacia- 
tion. Still he would lose his hunting condition, even though 
he obtained neither more nor less flesh than he might carry 
at work. Unless the horse have more exercise, a faster kind 
of exercise than he takes at grass, he can not keep his hunt 

22* 



258 STABLE ECONOMY. 

ing condition. He becomes weak and short-winded, whether 
he have much or httle food. 

There are no other real objections, unless it be one that the 
horse is liable to receive the bot-worm into his stomach ; but 
this has never been urged against grazing. 

One party has magnified, or rather multiplied, the virtues, 
and another the evil of a summer's run. Pastured hunters, 
it is said, are liable to kicks, sprains, and other injuries, in 
playing or quarrelling with their neighbors ; that the feet are 
often injured by stamping the ground when it is hard, and the 
flies irritating ; that splints and ringbones are sometimes pro- 
duced in the same way ; that the act of grazing is pernicious 
to the back-tendons ; that broken-wind, roaring, and exces- 
sive emaciation, have been the results of a summer's run. But 
these are not the necessary consequences of turning out ; they 
are merely accidents arising from mismanagement or want of 
care. Some of the alleged evils have no existence. Ring- 
bone, if ever produced at grass, is the result of inattention to 
the feet, and splints do no more harm by appearing while the 
horse is at pasture than if he were stabled. They would 
come whether or not. It has never been proved that grazing 
injures the back-tendons. 

The pages of the sporting periodicals abound with what 
are called arguments, or what is meant for argument, for and 
against grazing hunters. With the exceptions to which I 
have briefly alluded, nothing has come under my notice wor- 
thy of particular attention. Enough has been written, if it be 
measured by quantity ; but writers on stable affairs are, in 
general, not very good writers. They tell stories which nei- 
ther interest nor instruct, neither refute nor confirm. In 
truth, they are often entirely destitute of any connexion with 
the subject of discussion. There are numerous accounts of 
horses gving to grass without fault, and returning with dis- 
ease, or acquiring disease soon afterward. The circumstance 
is supposed to be conclusive in favor of the in-door system. 
On the other side, similar tales are told of horses not doing 
well in the house. They reason like children. If they see 
two things at the same time, they immediately believe that 
one is the cause of the other. If a horse die, or fall lame, 
while getting grass, that, and nothing else, was the cause. If 
d hunter die that had got no grass, no physic, nor any alter- 
ative medicine, the want of one or other is the reason he dies. 

If a horse could be kept in hunting condition while at 
grass, o: prepared without hazard, and in time to follow 



PRACTICE OF FEEDING. 259 

hounds alter a summer's run, as well as by keeping him in 
the stable, there could not, I think, be any reason for keeping 
him at home. This could be done, but it would require more 
care, and the cost would be as great as if the horse were kept 
entirely in the stable. 

Nimrod's Mode of Summering Hunters. — This gentleman, 
whose real name is Apperley, has acquired considerable ce- 
lebrity in the sporting world by his writings in favor of home 
summering. He was the first to introduce the system which 
bears his assumed name. His remarks were originally pub- 
lished in the Sporting Magazijie, between 1822 and 1828. 
They formed a series of letters, which have recently been 
collected into a single volume ; from this I extract the follow- 
ing account of the mode in which he kept six hunters during 
the summer of 1825. The quotation is considerably abridged. 

Food. — The horses had received alteratives during the 
hunting season, and required no physic when it terminated, 
which was on the 20th of April. They got their usual food, 
with very gentle exercise, till the 7th of May — seventeen 
days. From this time till the 19th — that is, for twelve days 
— they received some grass during the day, and hay at night. 
They were soiled a second time for ten days, from the 11th 
to the 20th of June. They were then prepared for physic, 
which was given on the 22d. Four of the six horses got no 
more grass. The other two got about an armful of vetches 
daily, mixed with their hay, till the sixth of July. Each 
horse had three quarterns* of oats per day, and three had a 
single handful of beans in every feed. 

Care of the Feet. — The shoes were taken from all the hor- 
ses on the 7th of May ; the hoofs were closely pared, the 
soles thinned, and frogs let down to the ground. The horses 
stood barefoot till the 6th of July, a period of sixty days 
Each stood two hours every day in a clay-box, a building ten 
feet by twelve, the floor of which was covered with clay, oc- 
casionally moistened by dashing water upon it. 

Lodging. — Nos. 1 and 2 were in a building sixteen yards 
by six. It was well littered, and had an outlet to a small 
green yard, in which there was a running stream. No. 3 
was in a covered building, twelve yards long and six broad. 
One half of the floor was littered, the other half paved with 
brick. No. 4 was in a loose box, six yards square, kept 
quite dark to exclude flies, of which the horse was uncom- 
monly terrified He was turned into a paddock forty yards 
* A quartern is the fourth of a peck. 



260 STABLE ECONOMY. 

square, about six times in the course of summer, after sun 
set, but the fence would not confine him. No. 5 was fired, 
and stood in a stall all day ; in the cool of evening and early 
at morning he went to the paddock. No. 6 was kept in an 
airy box, but being vicious, was not so often in the paddock 
as she should have been. 

Medicine. — The first dose of physic was given on the 22d 
of June: on the 18th of July each horse got a second dose, 
which was mild. In the month of August, each horse re- 
ceived one half pound of antimony, an ounce at a time for 
eight successive days. More physic, it was expected, would 
not be required till after Christmas, but some of the horses 
had got an alterative ball every week. 

Comparative Cost. — To avoid fractions, the period may bo 

called nine weeks. During the hunting season the horses 

consumed three hundred-weight of hay per week ; but in 

these loose places some is wasted, and more is eaten, the 

horses having less grain. The quantity consumed by the six 

horses may be calculated at five hundred-weight per week. 

Forty-five cwt. of hay, at £4 per ton, - - - £9 

Seventy-one bushels of oats at 4s. per bushel - - 14 4 

Beans 1 10 



24 14 

Six horses at grass for 9 weeks, at 4s. each per week 10 16 



Difference 13 18 
About three pounds of the stable outlay would return for 
manure ; and if any one of the horses were sold at the com- 
mencement of next hunting season, his condition would be 
such that he would bring at least twenty-five pounds more 
than if he had been summered at grass.* 

According to this account, it appears that each horse costs 
about five shillings more per week in the stable than at grass. 
I am, however, inclined to think that the difference will be 
be fouK i considerably greater when other items are taken into 
consideration. The cost of grass for soiling, of straw for lit- 
ter, of attendance, of stable-room, and a few other little arti- 
cles, is omitted. To the proprietor of an established stud the 
expenditure for these is insignificant ; but every charge on 
both sides should be known before it can be told whether the 
horses may be stabled or grazed. 

Objections to Home Siunmering. — The expense attending 
the in-door system is the only objection that can, I think, be 
• Nimrod on the Condition of Hunters, pp. 258, 260. 



PRACTICE OF FEEDING 261 

justly urged against it. As far as the health and vigor of the 
hunter are concerned, experience seems to have fully proved 
which of the two plans is the best for him. Most of those 
who have opposed the home summering, persist in magnify- 
ing and multiplying the good effects of grazing ; but little is 
said against Nimrod's system, except that it deprives the 
horse of all the advantages of grazing, and that it is cruel. 
The cruelty has been much insisted on, but without any rea- 
son. If it can be shown that the stabled hunter has more 
vigor at the commencement of his labors than he that has 
summered abroad, it is sufficient proof that the horse has not 
been uncomfortable. He has not, indeed, experienced the 
delight of galloping in freedom with his companions, but nei- 
ther has he suffered the pains of freedom. On the hot days 
he has been reposing at ease in the stable, while others were 
scorched by a burning sun, and persecuted by multitudes of 
winged enemies. If the horse himself be consulted, it will 
be found that, though he likes now and then to have a day oi 
two to himself in a good pasture, yet he prefers home. If 
every horse that has been long stabled had his own will, he 
would walk from the field to the stall upon the third or fourth 
day. 

I see no objection to let the hunter out for two or three 
weeks, while the grass is young. In such a short period he 
would not suffer much loss of condition — none but what 
might be easily and safely restored before he is wanted for the 
nounds. Yet I do not think he would derive any benefit 
Trom this, if the pleasure it would give him be excepted. 
There are cases in which a summer's grass may be quite ne- 
cessary, demanded by the state of the horse's health. But I 
am not speaking of these, nor of those to whom grazing 
would be more than usually injurious. The.'^e are exceptions, 
and have nothing to do with the question. Hunters in full 
work are generally lean, something exhausted, and have their 
legs a little the worse for wear, at the end of the hunting sea- 
son. Some may have become very lame, and these are not 
fit for grass ; others may have been sadly over-marked, and in 
bad health ; these would be much the better of the young 
grass, the gentle and regular exercise, and the open air which 
they would procure at pasture. But in all ordinary cases, it 
appears that hunters can be better managed at home than 
Abroad. 

They are not to be constantly tied in stalls, nor even kept 
loose boxes. If the legs be good the horses should have 



262 STABLE ECONOMY. 

walking and trotting exercise every day, or every second 
day, during the first six weeks. Afterward the exercise 
must be fast enough to give good wind. If the legs be de- 
fective, the horse may need absolute rest, or he may have 
walking exercise in moderation every day. 

The Winter Food of Himters consists of oats, beans, hay, 
and bran. The articles are generally of the best quality. 
The quantity of hay is about 8 pounds per day, the one half 
given at morning, the other at night. Many hunters would 
eat more, and some may be allowed about 10 pounds. A 
greater quantity makes the belly too large, and impedes the 
breathing. The day before hunting, the horse should not 
have more than 8 pounds. If he eat his litter, the setting 
muzzle must be applied about 10 or 11 o'clock at night, or 
after the allowance of hay is consumed. In such a case the 
groom must be in the stable by 5 next morning, to remove 
the muzzle and give the horse his first feed, along with 4 
pounds of hay. For horses somewhat thick-winded, those 
that breathe as if with great labor, even 8 pounds of hay may 
be rather too much on the day before work. Horses diff'er 
much in the quantity of hay they may eat without inconve- 
•lience. The size of the belly is perhaps a good guide. If 
8 pounds of hay make it too large for work, less must bo 
given. When the flank is tucked up, a larger allowance is 
necessary. Hunters of light carcass and narrow chest sel- 
dom eat too much of anything, and they are always poor hay- 
feeders. The round-barrelled horse is most apt to overeat 
himself. By giving more grain, he may have less disposition 
to gorge himself with hay ; but, unless his legs be good 
enough to stand much work, more grain will make him too 
fat. These great eaters need physic often, and alteratives al- 
most every week. 

Hunters during the season, are generally fed five times a 
day, consuming from 12 to 16 pounds of grain. The ordina- 
ry feed is a quartern, in each of which there may be one or 
two single handfuls of beans. The oats and beans are rare- 
ly bruised, and the hay almost never cut into chaff. Occa- 
sionally a few carrots are given. They are better after a 
severe day than before it. Hunters seldom receive any boiled 
food. Barley boiled, or germinated, is an excellent and 
speedy restorative when the horse has been tired oflf his 
feed. The quantity in such a case should not exceed half a 
feed. Bran-mashes are given only when the horse shows 
some signs of plethora, when under physic, when work hai 



PRACTICE OF FEEDING. 263 

fevered him, when lameness, fatigue, or sickness, require rest. 
To horses of keen appetite, it is usual to give a bran-mash 
once in 8 or 10 days, instead of the customary feed of grain. 
It keeps the bowels open and prevents plethora, but it is 
purgative and debilitating, if given within 48 hours of going 
to hounds. Horses that purge on the road or in the field 
never need it while able for work. 

The Saddle-Horse is fed in nearly the same manner as 
hunters. He generally gets more hay and less grain. Three 
feeds per day, about 10 pounds, is the usual allowance, with 
12 of hay. Those in full work may be fed in the same way 
as hunters, or stage-coach horses. When the work is moder- 
ate, the feeding may be the same as that of cavalry -horses. 

The cost of keeping a horse at livery, varies from 17^. to 
25s. per week. 

The Cavalry-Horses used to be fed on barley and hay. 
At present they get 10 pounds of oats, and 12 of hay. They 
are fed thrice. In the morning they get 3 pounds, at mid-day 
4, and at night 3. For six or seven weeks in summer they 
get cut grass. They have no beans, no boiled food, nor chafT. 
The oats are not bruised. Once a week a bran-mash is given 
at night instead of oats. Sick horses get bran-mashes, boiled 
oats, raw potatoes, and hay or grass. Each horse is allowed 
8 pounds of straw every day for litter. 

Race-Horses. — I have never been at Newmarket, and 
have had so little to do with race-horses that I can not say 
much about them. The few remarks I here make, are not 
derived from extensive personal observation, and I am not sure 
that my authorities know any more about the matter than my- 
self. The account which I offer of what is, and of what 
should be, in the feeding of racers, can not be the same as if 
it had been written at the headquarters of racing. I would 
not have either the theories or the practice much trusted in. 

It seems that race-horses, when in work, live chiefly upon 
oats, beans, and hay. The quantity of oats varies from 15 
to 20 pounds per day ; nobody can tell me how much hay is 
allowed. The racer appears, however, to get as much as the 
hunter, if he choose to eat it. Race-horses must have no 
superfluous flesh about them, yet they must possess great vigor 
and endurance. Some of them, many of them, are delicate, 
.rritable animals, always lean, and often not eating sufficient 
to confer the energy their work requires. These require 
food that is both tempting and highly nutritious. They may 
have as much oats as they will eat, and an allowance of beans 



264 STABLE ECONOMY. 

in each feed. The only danger of giving too much or too 
often, is that of disgusting the horse and destroying his ap- 
petite, for two or three meals. Clover hay may be given to 
tlese horses, and in what quantity they like. They should 
be fed often, yet never till they are hungry ; others of robust 
constitution, disposed to eat too much, that is, so much as to 
produce fatness, in spite of all the work the legs will suffer, 
must be fed somewhat sparingly. For these horses beans are 
too strong, and clover too tempting. It is true, the more they 
eat, the more work they will endure ; and the more work the^ 
get in training or racing, the more vigor they display on the 
day of action. But there are limits to this. The legs fail ; 
they become tumid, tender, and the fetlocks knuckle ; the 
horse gets stiff, and his stride shortens. The work which a 
greedy feeder may require to keep him free from superfluous 
flesh, confers speed, and especially stoutness, but, carried 
beyond a certain point, it ruins the legs. Hence it is neces- 
sary to limit the allowance of food in proportion to the delicacy 
of the limbs. If they threaten to fail, the work must be di- 
minished, and, as the work decreases, so must the food ; 
otherwise, stable-sweating or purging must be employed to 
keep the horse spare. 

Grass is sometimes given to racers. They work chiefly in 
summer, but also in spring and in autumn. Between racing- 
days they occasionally require to be soiled. If work be con- 
cluded before grass is quite out of season, some is given, while 
it lasts, to horses that are laid up for the winter. 

When racing is over, which is generally by the end of 
September, the horses are put into winter-quarters. Some 
may have had much work ; they are emaciated ; the legs are 
swollen' out of shape; some are lame; some have galled 
backs ; all have *he feet much injured, the hoofs broken and 
reduced by frequent removal of the shoes. Those that have 
been much reduced and knocked about, are put into loose 
boxes, where they remain for two or three months, receiving 
grass, carrots, hay, and oats. The quantity of food should be 
sufficient to put flesh on the horse, but not to produce fatness. 
If the legs or sheath swell, he must have physic, or an altera- 
tive, exercise, and less grain, replaced by bran-mashes, more 
particularly should there- be a tendency to surfeit. When 
bad weather or the state of the horse's legs requires that he stay 
much in the house, he should have bran-mashes often, and the 
loose box should be as large as possible, without being cold. 

The horse is to be dressed every day ; the loose-box clean 



PRACTICE OF FEEDING. 265 

ed every morning. If the legs have not been much abused, 
and the horse have no lameness, he ought to have ejcercise 
every day. If the back sinews be much swollen, little or no 
exercise should be given for the first four or six weeks. If 
the horse be lame he must rest till sound. The feet should 
always be defended by light shoes to prevent further injury of 
the hoofs, and to permit of out-door exercise. Thrushes, if 
there be any, are to be dressed every second day ; and if very 
bad, a leather sole may be applied under the shoe. The shoes 
need removal, and the feet dressing, every five or six weeLs. 
If the hoofs be much broken and of slow growth, the shoes 
should be strong enough to wear at exercise for six or eight 
weeks. At the end of four, they may be removed, eased off 
the heels, and the nails driven in the old holes. 

If the horse be rather lusty at the conclusion of his running, 
he will require less grain, more exercise, and perhaps a dose 
► of physic. If the legs be good, he may have exercise every 
day, and a sweating gallop once a fortnight. If the legs be 
much out of order, the horse must rest, and get two or three 
doses of physic. At first he should have little grain. He 
must be reduced in flesh before his legs can be restored. 

Some racers are stalled all winter, and if fit for daily ex- 
ercise they are almost as well in stalls as in loose boxes. 
But when lameness, injured legs, or great emaciation, forbids 
exercise abroad, the horse, for a while at least, must have. a 
loose box, where he will have motion enough to prevent 
swelled legs, stiffness, repletion, and the fatigue and weari- 
someness produced by long confinement. 

Too much physic, I think, is given in the racing stables. 
If the legs be good, and the horse lean, he needs no physic 
at the conclusion of his running. Engorgement of the legs 
demands two or three doses, which, for a lean horse, should 
be mild, for a lusty horse pretty strong. But it s.^ms to be a 
common practice to give three doses, whether the legs need 
them or not. It is said, that the physic prevents the horse 
from getting foul, that is, too plethoric : and for a time it does 
so. But if other circumstances do not demand physic, would 
it not be as well to limit the allowance of food ? It is the 
high feeding, the system of feeding beyond the work, that 
produces the plethora It would surely be easier and safer 
to give less food, than to give physic for preventing or curing 
the evils arising from too much food. 

It appears to me that both hunting and racing grooms feed 
the idle horses too fast. If lean when laid out of work, it is 

23 



266 STABLE ECONOMY. 

right to have them plump, well filled-up ly the time they are 
called into traming. Racers are generally altogether out of 
work for about three months, many of them for a longer, but 
■few for a shorter time. The whole of this period may be 
necessary to restore the legs, but much less time suffices to 
fill up an emaciated horse. If a tolerable feeder, six weeks 
of repose on a generous diet will recruit the racer, even when 
his work — to use a stable phrase — has drawn him very fine. 
But it is not right to hasten flesh upon him so rapidly. If the 
horse is to lie off for three months, and, in the first two, ac- 
quires all the flesh he can carry in training, the last month 
will load him with superfluity, which must be pulled off, at 
the hazard of the legs, or by means of bleeding, physic, 
sweating, or alteratives. In the first place, all the grain from 
which the superfluous flesh is derived, goes to waste ; it is 
lost. In the second place, the flesh must be removed at con- 
siderable hazard to the horse, and a large expenditure of time, ' 
trouble, and money, to the owner. 

There are many racers to whom these remarks are not ap- 
plicable. Those of light carcass and hot tempers rarely feed 
so well as to accumulate fat. They may have what they will 
eat and drink. But the others, those of deep chests, broad 
loins, and keen stomachs, must have their allowance of grain 
regulated by their work. The groom should know with what 
flesh the horse can go to training in spring, and he should take 
care that the requisite quantity is not required too soon. 

PASTURING. 

In another place, I have spoken of grass as an article of 
food. Its laxative and alterative properties are well known. 
So far as mere health is concerned, grass is the most salubri- 
ous food the horse can receive. When eaten where it grows, 
the horse is said to be turned out — to be getting a run at grass 
— or he is at grass. When cut, and consumed in the stable, 
the horse is said to be soiled. 

Pasture Fields differ very widely. Some are composed 
of only two or three plants ; others of an endless variety. Of 
the same field some parts are highly relished, and always 
cropped to the root ; while many others, luxuriant, healthy, 
and, to the eye, attractive, are never touched, or eaten only 
when there is nothing else to eat. The soil^is sometimes 
hard and injurious to naked feet, sometimes soft and marshy 
favorable to the growth of horn but not to a weak hoof. Pas- 



PRACTICE OF FEEDINO. 267 

tures on tlie seashore, and occasionally laid undei salt-water, 
are supposed to be more salubrious than others. They are 
termed salt-marshes, saltings, or ings. For horses ^^orn down, 
by bad food, hard work, or disease, they are recommended by 
several authorities as peculiarly renovating, but their supe- 
riority is not unquestionable. Whatever be the nature of the 
soil and of the herbage, there should be abundance of grass, 
a supply of water, shelter from the sun and the storm, and 
fences to enforce confinement. 

It is probable that grass eaten m the field produces quite the 
same effects as that eaten in the stable. But at pasture there 
are several agents in operation to which the stabled horse is 
not necessarily exposed. The exercise he must take, and the 
position his head must assume, in order that he may obtain 
food ; the annoyance he suffers from flies ; his exposure to 
the weather ; the influence of the soil upon the feet and legs ; 
and the quantity of food placed at his disposal, appear to me 
to be all the circumstances which make pasturing different 
from soiling. They deserve a little notice in detail. 

The Exercise which the pastured horse must take as he 
gathers his food, varies according to the state of the herbage. 
When the ground is bare, the exercise may amount even to 
work, but to a sound horse it is never injurious ; in cold 
weather it keeps him warm, or, at least, prevents him from 
becoming very cold. With a lame horse the case is differento 
In some lamenesses, the slow but constant exercise which a 
horse must take at grass is beneficial. It is so in the navicu- 
lar disease, and in all other chronic diseases of the joints ; 
of which, however, there are not many in the horse. The 
exertion which a bare pasture demands, is unfavorable to any 
sprain or lameness arising from disease in the ligaments and 
tendons. Lameness when very great, no matter where seat- 
ed, forbids pasturing, even though the herbage be knee-high. 
The pain of standing, and moving on two or three legs, may 
be so great that the horse will be compelled to lie before he 
has obtained half a meal. In a rich pasture he will lose flesh, 
and in a bare one he will starve. I have seen groggy horses, 
even where the grass was abundant, so much reduced that 
they could hardly move. They could not stand till they ob- 
tained sufficient food, and they could oblain none when lying. 

It is for slight lameness only that horses should be turned 
out ; and the pastures should be such as to afibrd sufficient 
nutriment, without giving the horse more exercise than is 
good for the disease. 



268 STABLE ECONOMY". 

The legs of fast-working horses often become tumid, shape 
less, tottering, bent at the knee, and straight at the pasterns 
These always improve at pasture, as, indeed, they do in the 
stable, or loose box, when the horse is thrown out of work 
Grazing exercise does not appear to be unfavorable to their 
restoration ; but when the knees are very much bent, the 
horse is unfit for turning out ; he can not graze ; when his 
head is down he is ready to fall upon his nose, and it costs 
him much effort to maintain his equipoise. 

Young horses in good condition take a good deal of exer- 
cise in playing with their companions. I have never known 
any take too much. Some are sprained or otherwise injured, 
m galloping or leaping ; but these are the accidents of pas- 
turage, not the necessary concomitants. 

The Position of the Head in the act of grazing is un- 
favorable to the return of blood from the brain, from the eyes, 
from all parts of the head. Horses that have had staggers* 
or bad eyes, those that have recently lost a jugular vein, and 
those that have any disease about the head — strangles, for in- 
stance — should not be sent to pasture. The disease becomes 
worse, or if gone, it is apt to return. Even healthy horses 
are liable to att.-^cks on the brain when turned to grass, par- 
ticularly when the weather is hot, and the herbage abundant. 
I have not met with such cases, but they are somewhere on 
record. 

It has been said that horses prefer feeding from the ground, 
to feeding from the manger ; but that is not true. Colts are 
indifferent about it. They have always been accustomed to 
grazing, and the act gives them no uneasiness. But horses 
that have been more than a year in the stable, and especially 
those that have been reined up in harness, often experience 
considerable difficulty in grazing. The neck is rigid, and 
the muscles which support the head are short. It is often 
several weeks before an old coach-horse can graze with ease. 
For the first two or three lioi^s after turning out he seems to 
manage tolerably well, but subsequently he gets wearied, and 
may be seen in a ditch, feeding off the banks. He loses 
flesh during the first two or three weeks, but afterward he ac- 
quires greater facility in grazing. Some, however, do not. I 
have known one or two remain out for a month, and require 
to be taken home to prevent death by starvation. Very old 
coach-horses that have short, stiff necks, should not be turned 

* Phrenitis or apoplexy. 



PASTURING. 26& 

out when they can be kept in. If they must go, they should 
be watched, lest they die of want. 

Exposure to the Weather. — Wet cold weather always 
produces emaciation and a long coat. If the horse be put out 
without preparation, he is apt to have an attack of inflamed 
lungs, a sore throat, or a common cold, with discharge from 
the nose. He may sicken and die. Many people seem to 
think no usage too bad for the horse, if it do not immediately 
produce some deadly disease ; that is to say, they do not care 
for consequences, unless they are sure iheir interest will be 
materially affected. A fool will often sacrifice his interest to 
a certain extent, rather than be guilty of kindness to his hoise, 
or give himself any trouble. He may know that cold will 
make the beast lean for certain, and that it will cost so much 
grain to restore his flesh ; and he may know that sickness may 
arise from sudden exposure ; but that is only probable, and he 
incurs the risk rather than take the trouble of putting his horse 
under cover when a wet night or a cold day comes. Early 
in spring, or late in autumn, he is turned out of a warm com- 
fortable stable, and left to battle with the weather as he best 
can. He crouches to the side of a hedge, shivering and 
neglected, as if he had no friend in the world ; and of all 
who pass him, no one seems to think he is suffering any hard- 
ship, while those who have imbibed the " manly bravery of 
British subjects" consider him a fair mark for a stone or a 
jest. 

In time, the horse becomes inured to the weather, if he do 
not sink under it. But sometimes he comes home with dis- 
eased lungs, and very often with a cough which never leaves 
him, and which produces broken wind. 

Shelter is too much neglected, especially in winter pas- 
tures. It is easily provided, at the cost of a few rude boards. 
A hovel, covered on three sides, the fourth open to the south, 
and just high enough to admit the horse, will answer the 
purpose. The bottom should be sloping, elevated, and quite 
dry. When litter can be afforded, it will tempt the horse out 
of the blast. There may be hay-racks and mangers, strong, 
though of rude construction. In summer the horse can re- 
tire here during the heat of the day, and in winter he can 
avoid the storm of si»ow or rain. 

Exposure to hot weather is not so pernicious, yet it always 
produces pain, if the horse be turned out in the middle of sum- 
mer. For a while he is fevered all day and loses flesh ; but 
he soon recovers. The parts that aio most apt to suffer are 

23* 



270 STABLE ECONOMY. 

the brain and the eyes. Staggers, that is, an affection of the 
brain, is not common, and the eyes never suffer permanent 
mischief. They are inflamed by the flies, but the brain is in- 
jured, partly by the heat, and partly by the pendent position 
of the head, aided perliaps by plethora. 

The Flies. — The horse is persecuted by at least three 
kinds of flies. One, the common house-fly, settles on his 
ears and different parts of his body, tickling and leasing him. 
Another is a larger fly, termed the gad or cleg ; it is a blood- 
sucker, bites pretty smartly, and irritates some tender-skinned 
horses almost to madness. They gallop about the field in 
every direction, stamp their feet, tear up the ground, and of- 
ten kick as if something were behind them. Sometimes they 
rush into the water to escape the attacks of these formidable 
insects. It is this fly, I suppose that produces the bot-worm, 
so often found in the stomach of a horse that has been at 
grass. [The bot-fly never bites the horse. He irritates him 
merely. The gad-fly, which so much annoys the horse, is a 
different one from the bot-fly.] The female deposites her eggs 
on the hair about the shoulder, neck, and knees ; a glutinous 
matter in which they are enveloped fastens them to the hair. 
When the horse or his companion licks these places, he swal- 
lows some of the eggs, which are hatched in the stomach. 
The worms are each furnished with two little hooks, by which 
they adhere to the surface of the stomach till spring arrives, 
when they are evacuated, and soon become flies like the 
parent. 

There is a third kind of fly, which annoys the pastured 
horse a good deal. I do not know its name. It is a small 
insect, and lives on blood. It attacks those parts where the 
skin is thinnest ; the eyelids, inside and outside, the sheath, 
and the vagina, are often much bitten by it. The eyelids es- 
pecially always swell where this fly abounds, and the swel- 
ling is sometimes so great as to make the horse nearly blind. 
The eye is red and weeping. Some suffer much more than 
others. I have never seen any permanently injured. 

The principal defence the horse has against these puny, 
but tormenting enemies, is his tail. On some parts of the 
body the horse can remove them with his teeth, and his feet, 
and that which the feet and the teeth can not do is done by 
the tail. But in this country, so eminently the seat of free- 
dom and wisdom, the effective instrument with which nature 
furnishes him is almost invaiiably removed before the horse 
has attained maturity ; as if the pains of servitude were not 



PASTURING. 271 

sufficiently great and numerous, domesticity is rendered still 
more intolerable by caprice. The tail, though useful, is not 
ornamental, and therefore it must suffer amputation. In such 
works the lords of creation delight to exhibit their pride and 
their power. 

The Soil. — The influence of the soil upon the horse's 
feet and legs has been much spoken of; but it has been much 
exaggerated. Horses reared in soft marshy pastures have 
large flat feet, low at the heels, and weak everywhere. On 
dry ground the hoof is hard, strong, and small, the sole con- 
cave, and the heels high. But to confer any peculiar charac- 
ter upon the hoof, or produce any change upon it, a long and 
continued residence upon the same soil is necessary. A pe- 
riod of six months does, perhaps, produce a change, but in 
general it is so insignificant that it is not apparent. 

The low temperature at which the feet and legs are kept 
in a moist pasture has probably some influence in abating in- 
flammation in these parts ; but the benefit can not be very 
great. The legs become finer, free from tumor and gourdi- 
ness, but they would improve nearly or quite as soon, and as 
much, in a loose box. 

When the pastures are hard, baked by the sun, unshod 
horses are apt to break away the crust, and they often come 
home with hardly horn enough to hold a nail. Feet that have 
never been shod sulTer less ; others should in general be pre- 
served by light shoes, especially on the fore feet ; kicking 
horses, when shod behind, are rather dangerous among others. 

It has been supposed that the act of grazing throws con- 
siderable stress upon the tendons of the fore legs, and ulti- 
mately impairs them. This has been urged against grazing 
hunters ; but so far as sound legs are concerned, there seems 
to be no truth in the supposition, and it has certainly never 
been proved. 

Quantity of Food. — In the stable a horse's food can be 
given in measure proportioned to his wants. But at pasture 
he may get too much, or he may get too little. This is a 
strong objection to summering hunters in the field. It is dif- 
ficult to put the horse where he will receive all the nourish- 
ment he requires, and no more. In a rich pasture he may 
acquire an inconvenient load of fat ; in a poor one he may be 
half starved. If he must go out, he may be taken in before 
he becomes too fat, or he may be placed in a bare pasture, 
and fed up to the point required, by a daily allowance of 
grain. 



272 STABLE ECONOMY. 

In winter, few pastures afford sufficient nourishment to a 
horse that must go to work in spring. A httle hay is given, 
but in many cases some grain should be added. The horse 
will pay for it when he goes into work. His condition, how- 
ever, will tell what is wanted. He had better be rather lean 
than too fat when he commences work, especially if the work 
be fast. 

Times of Turning out. — Horses are pastured at all 
times of the year. Some are out for lameness, some for bad 
health, and some that they may be kept at less than the stable 
cost. The usual time of turning out is about the end of April 
or beginning of May. Then the grass is young, juicy, ten- 
der, and more laxative than at a later period. The spring 
grass is best for a horse in bad health, worn out by sickness, 
hard work, or bad food. The weather is mild, neither too 
hot nor too cold ; when unsettled and backward, the delicate, 
sometimes every horse, should come in at night and on bleak 
days. Toward the end of summer, the grass is hard, dry, 
coarse, fit enough to afford nutriment, but not to renovate a 
shattered constitution. The days are hot, the nights cold and 
damp, the flies strong and numerous. This is not the time 
for turning out a delicate, nor a thin-skinned horse. Those 
that are to be out all winter may be turned off at any time in 
September. Winter grazing is better for the legs than thai 
of spring or summer. The bareness of the pasture keeps 
the carcass light, and the coolness of the atmosphere fines 
the legs. But if the horse be very lame, the exercise may 
he too much for him. 

Preparation for Pasturing. — Grooms are much in the 
habit of giving the horse a dose or two of physic before send- 
ing him to grass. I do not think that any is necessary, yet 
it appears to do no harm. Physic, I'hey say, prevents the grain 
from fighting with the grass ; but this is a nonsensical theory. 
The horse may have tumid legs, or some other thing the mat- 
ter with him, and for that physic may be useful. It would 
be so whether the horse went to grass or remained at home. 
But so far as the mere change of diet and lodging is con- 
cerned, physic is quite unnecessary. 

To prepare the horse for exposure to the weather, the 
clothing to which he has been accustomed is lightened, and 
then entirely removed, a week or two before turning out. 
The temperature of the stable is gradually reduced, till it be 
as cool as the external air. These precautions are most 
necessary for horses that have been much in the stable, and 



STURING. 273 

particularly in a warm stable. If the horse go out at the end 
of summer or in autumn, he should go before his winter coat 
is on. If its growth be completed in the stable, its subse- 
quent increase may not be sufficient to keep the horse warm. 
In autumn, he should not go out while moulting. For eight 
or ten flays previous he should not be groomed. The dust 
and perspiration which accumulate upon the hair, seem in 
some measure to protect the skin from rain and from flies. 
The feet should be dressed, and the grass shoes, or plates, 
applied a week before turning out. If injured by the nails, 
the injury will be apparent 'before much mischief is done. 
At grass it might not be noticed so soon. On the day of 
going out, the horse should be fed as usual. If he go to grass 
when very hungry he may eat too much. Indigestion will 
be the result, and next morning the horse will be found dead. 
Weather permitting, night is usually chosen for the time of 
turning out. The horse is not so apt to gallop about. Let 
loose in the daytime, many are disposed to gallop nil they 
lame themselves, and to try the fences. 

In autumn, or early in spring, the stable preparation for 
grass is often insufficient. If the horse be tender, or the 
weather unsettled or cold, he may require to be taken home 
every night, for perhaps the first week. For eight or ten 
days longer, it may be proper to house him on very wet or 
stormy nights. If there be no sheds in the field, it is an act 
of charity to bring the horse home when there is snow on the 
ground. The stable assigned to him should always be cool, 
not so cold as the external air, but never so warm as if he 
were accustomed to it. 

Confinement. — Some horses are not so easily confined at 
pasture. They break or leap the fences, and wander over 
the country, or proceed to the stable. The fore feet are 
sometimes shackled in order to confine them ; but these fet- 
ters, if long worn, are apt to alter the horse's action, render- 
ing it short, confined, irregular, at least for a time, till he re- 
gain the use of his shoulders. Sometimes the horse is tied 
by a rope to a stake driven in the ground. He requires 
almost constant watching, for he must be often shifted as he 
eats down the grass, and he may get his legs entangled in 
the rope. He may cast himself, and receive severe injury, 
without he be immediately relieved. Sometimes the horse 
is f'ed to a stake, which he can drag about the field. He 
s jon finds that he can walk where he pleases, but he can not 
run, and seldom atteii pts to leap. This also is liable how 



274 STABLE ECONOMT. 

ever, to throw the horse down, or injure his legs by getting 
them entangled in the rope. To prevent the horse from leap- 
ing, a board is sometimes suspended round his neck, and 
reaching to the knees, wliich it is apt to bruise. None of 
these clumsy and unsafe restraints should ever be employed 
when it is possible to dispense with them. Few horses, 
mares in springs and stallions excepted, require them after 
the first two days. For horses that are turned out only ai?. 
hour or two during the day, they are as much used to render 
the horse easily caught when wanted, as to prevent him from 
wandering. 

Attendance while Out. — Horses at grass should be 
visited at least once every day. If neglected for weeks, as 
pften happens, one may be stolen, and conveyed out of the 
"'ountry before he is missed ; the fences may be broken ; the 
vater may fail ; the horses may be lamed or attacked with 
uckness ; one may roll into a ditch, and die there for want 
)f assistance to extricate him ; the shoes may be cast ; the 
heels may crack ; thrushes may form ; sores may run into 
minuses, or get full of maggots ; the feet and legs may be in- 
jured by stubs, thorns, broken glass, or kicks ; the horses 
may quarrel, fight, and wound each other. That these and 
similar evils and accidents may be prevented, or soon re- 
paired, the horses should be visited every morning. The 
man set on this duty should be trustworthy, not a stupid fel- 
low, nor one who will loiter in the tavern, and return without 
seeing the horses. He should know what he has to look for. 
It is not enough to stand at the gate and count the horses. 
He must approach them, examine them one by one, looking 
to their condition, their action, and their spirits, and not for- 
getting to cast an eye upon the feet, the pasture, the water, 
the fences, and the shelter-sheds. Let him take a bridle and 
some grain with him, that he may catch any horse that seems 
to require closer examination, and he can at once bring home 
any horse that needs it. 

The grain, hay, either or both, if any be given, should be 
furnished at regular intervals ; when fed with grain, the 
horses ought to be watched till it be eaten, lest they rob each 
other, and lest a prowling thief rob the whole. Horses at 
grass require no dressing. They should have none. It ex- 
poses the skin too much. The shoes may be removed, and 
the feet dressed every four or five weeks. 

Treatment after Grazing. — When taken from grass to 
warm stables, and put upon rich constipating food, horses 



PASTURING. 275 

frequently become diseased. Some catch cold, some suffer 
inflammation in the eyes, some take swelled legs, cracked 
hefcli=i. grease, thrushes, founder, surfeit, or a kind of mange. 
These are very common, and physic is often, indeed gene- 
rally, given to prevent them. They are produced by a com^ 
bination of circumstances ; by sudden transition from gentle 
exercise to indolence or exciting work ; from a temperate to 
a stimulating diet ; from a pure, cool, and moving atmosphere, 
to an air comparatively corrupt, hot, and stagnant. These 
changes must be made ; they are to a certain extent unavoid- 
able, but it is not in all cases necessary that they be made 
suddenly. It is the rapid transition from one thmg to another 
and different thing, that does all the mischief. If it were ef- 
fected by slow degrees, the evils would be avoided, and there 
would be less need, or no need, for those medicines which 
ire given to prevent them. 

During the first week the temperature of the stable ought 
be little different from that of the external air. Subse- 
quently it may be raised, by slow degrees, till it is as warm 
.^ the work or other circumstances demand. The horse 
K^hould not at first be clothed, and his first clothing should be 
light. Grooming may commence on the first day ; but it is 
not good to expose the skin very quickly by a thorough dres- 
sing. The food should be laxative, consisting of bran-mashes, 
oats, and hay, but no beans, or very few. Walking exercise, 
twice a day, is absolutely necessary for keeping the legs 
clean, and it assists materially in preventing plethora. 

Ths time required for inuring a horse to stable treatment 
depends upon several circumstances. If taken home in warm 
weather, the innovation, so far as the temperature and purity 
of tf^e air are concerned, may be completed in about two 
week^. If not very lean, the horse's skin may be well 
cleanc-j] in the first week ; and to clean it, he must have one 
or two gentle sweats, sufficient to detach and dissolve the 
dust, mtid, and oily matter, which adhere to the skin, and 
glue thb hairs together. All this, or as much of it as pos- 
sible, mi ss; be scraped off while the horse is warm and per- 
spiring. Ii allowed to get dry before scraping, he is just 
where ht? v^as. If the weather be cold, there need be no 
great huny about cleaning him completely. 

The pro;.>fiety of giving physic after grazing has been often 
questioned. In the stable its utility is generally acknowl- 
edged. In books it is sometimes condemned as pernicious, 
sometimes . s useless. The grooms say that physic prevents 



278 STABLE ECONOMY. 

swelled legs, bad eyes, and other plethoric affections t* 
which horses are so prone after being stabled. But sone 
people — among whom we often find medical practitioners — 
who have more science than sense in these matters^ declare 
that they can not understand how physic should do anything 
of this kind. Perhaps it is no great matter whether they 
understand it or not. The question is, has the physic the 
power ascribed to it? It has. There are many cases in 
which physic is not required ; there are some in which it is 
improper ; some in which it is absolutely demanded ; and 
many in which it is useful. It is given too indiscriminately, 
and generally before it is wanted. 

To a lusty horse, one or two doses may be given for the 
purpose of reducing him, for removing superihious fat and 
flesh. The physic may be strong, sufficiently so to produce 
copious purgation. It empties the bowels, takes up the car- 
case, and gives freedom to respiration ; it promotes absorp- 
tion, and expels the juices which embarrass exertion. Work, 
sweating, and a spare diet of condensed food, will produce 
these effects without the aid of physic. But purgation 
shortens the time of training, and it saves the legs. If the 
horses must be rapidly prepared for work, with as little haz- 
ard as possible to his legs, he must have physic. The first 
dose may be given on the day he comes from grass ; the 
others, if more than one be necessary, at intervals of eight or 
ten clear days. 

A lean horse, newly from grass, requires no physic till he 
has been stabled for several days, and perhaps not then. By 
the time the horse has acquired flesh sufficient to stand train- 
ing, his bowels are void of grass, and his belly small enough 
to permit freedom of respiration. At the end of a fortnight 
or three weeks, the lean horse ought to be decidedly lustier. 
If too much so, if acquiring flesh too rapidly, one dose of 
physic may be given, strong enough to produce smart pur- 
gation, and prevent the evils I have spoken of as arising from 
plethora. If the horse is not taking- on flesh so quickly as he 
should, he may have two, perhaps tnree mild doses of physic, 
just strong enough to produce one or two watery or semifluid 
evacuations. If the horse eat a great deal without improving 
in condition, he is probably troubled with worms, and half a 
drachm of calomel maybe added to each dose of physic. If 
not feeding well, there is probably a torpid state of the diges- 
tive apparatus, produced by a bad or deficient diet. In such 
a case mild physic ia still proper, and in addition, the horse 



PASTURING. 2'" 



may have a few tonic balls between the setting of one dose, 
ZLhe administration of another. Four drachn,s of genUan 
two of ginaer, and one of tartar emetic, made into a ball with 
Loney, form a very nseful tonic. One of 'hese may be giveu 
every day, or every second day, for a fortnight. If not im- 
proved, or improving under these, the horse reqmres a vete- 

"Tn^somTplaces the horse is bled upon coming from grass 
with what intention or what «ff«^' ^ '=='■' "°* '^'l', J A^","^^ 
think that the operation can not be ^"Y "^^''"'^'^ILTl 
horse, and to a lean one it may be pernicious If ^'^"'J^/j'* 
all, it is probably after the horse is stabled and acquiring flesh 

"""Thtrnde of Gracing Farm-Horses requires a little notice. 
Other horsesire sentio pasture and, with ew excepUons, 
remain at it for days or weeks without !n'«""P"?,'i„f "™ 
emnloved in agriculture are pastured in three different ways. 
I'yCe the ho'rse is consta'ntly at g--- .«-«?' ^"™g„^;f^ 
hours of work; he is put out at night, is brought mnex 
mornincT, goes to work for two or three hours and is then re- 
ared i; 'pasture for about two hours ; in the afternoon he 
a<rain goes to work, which may be concluded at hve or six 
o?cTock and from that time till he is wanted next morning the 
horse is kept at grass. By another mode, the horse is tu^ed 
out only at night. During the day he is soiled '° '^^ ^t-^ble 
at his resting intervals. When work is over for the day he 
t sent out^l next morning. By the third mode, which is 
Generally allowed to be the best, the horse is turned to grass 
!:?y onJe a week. He is pastured from the t™« ^is work is 
finished on Saturday night till it recommences on Monday 

"Tflhf horses have anything like work the first two n^odes 
of grazing are, I think, objectionable. There is much expen- 
ditu e of labor' in procuring the food, and there is a great loss 
of time It may cost the horse four or five hours good work 
W cut down thJ grass he eats. A man armed with a sythe 
will do the sam! work with far less labor, and in a ew 
minutes. If there be nothing else for *e horse to do ^ ts 
very right to make him gather his own food. But, otherwise 
ItYs absurd to exhaust his strength and time in doing that 
which a man can do so much more easily and quic^y- i*e- 
^d^s this expenditure of the horse's time and strength^he los. 
of manure, and the damage done to pasture by the ft^st, ought 

to be considered. 

24 



278 STABLE ECONOMY. 

The third mode of grazing appears to be less objectionable 
The horses have no field labor on Sunday ; if the pasture be 
good, the weather favorable, and the horses not fatigued, they 
are better at grass than in the house. 

In Scotland, the road-horses are sometimes put to grass on 
Sunday. The practice has nothing that I know of to recom- 
mend it. The weekly work of these horses in general de- 
mands the rest which Sunday brings ; and if they run at a 
fast pace, as all coach-horses do now, they are apt to eat so 
much grass, and carry such a load in their belly, that on Mon- 
day they are easily over-marked. The breathing is impeded 
unless the horses purge, which a few do. They often come 
from grass as haggard and dejected as if they had done twice 
their ordinary work the day before. 

SOILING. 

When grass is given in the stable, the horse is said to be 
soiled. From what the word is derived, or what was its 
original meaning, I have not been able to learn. At present 
the term is used as if it denoted purification, or imsoiling. 
Grass is often given in the stable, under a vague impression 
that it removes impurities, or foulness, produced by the con- 
tinued use of a strong, stimulating diet. By some, soiling is 
regarded as an incomplete substitute : by others, as an equiva- 
lent to pasturing ; while a few hold that it is the best mode of 
giving green food. 

When the horse has to continue at work, or when his al- 
lowance of food must not be such as to produce fatness, or 
when its bulk must not impede the breathing, soiling is to be 
preferred to grazing. The allowance can be regulated in the 
stable, but not in the field. 

All horses do not require soiling. It is not true that green 
food is absolutely necessary for any horse in health. In 
many studs, an allowance of grass is given to each horse 
every year, not because it is a cheaper or more wholesome 
diet, nor because the horses are in bad condition, but because 
it is supposed to be necessary for preventing disease. In all 
large studs there are generally a few horses that require a 
change of diet ; they may be out of work, or in bad health ; 
reduced, perhaps, by sickless, lameness, bad food, or hard 
work. For such, soiling may be highly beneficial. But it 
does not follow that all should be soiled. They may, without 
njury but it has never been proved that it is absolutely ne- 



THE STRAW-YARD. 279 

cessary they should. When grass is abundant, and hay scarce 
the former may wholly or partly supply the place of the lat- 
ter. Without other fodder it is too laxative for fast- working 
horses. 

Cart-horses usually receive cut grass so long as it is in 
seasor., It is generally cheaper than hay ; when dearer it 
may be dispensed with. I know not how much a draught- 
hoise will consume in twenty-four hours. Professor Low, I 
think, states it at 200 pounds, which seems to be a very large 
quantity, and perhaps excludes grain. In the " British I%is- 
bandry," the daily consumption, with a little grain, is supposed 
to vary from 84 to 112 pounds. 

In soiling horses upon a small quantity of grass, it is given 
alone, or mixed with hay. Given by itself, it is apt to make 
the horses refuse their hay. It is better that the two should 
be mixed, especially when the hay is not very good. It is 
usual to do so, but the grass and the hay are seldom well 
mingled. They are so carelessly thrown together, that ihe 
horse is able to pick out the grass, and throw the hay among 
his feet. To mix them properly, they should be placed in a 
heap, layer upon layer, pressed together, and allowed to stand 
for two or three hours, so that the grass may communicate a 
part of its succulence and flavor to the hay. Afterward they 
may be incorporated by tossing the heap over two or three 
times. 

When only one or two horses are to be soiled, they should 
be placed apart, or get the grass when the other horses are 
out, otherwise they will refuse their food, and be much annoy- 
ed to see their neighbors enjoying a luxury of which they can 
not partake. They neither rest nor feed. 

THE STRAW-YARD 

Horses are sometimes turned out all winter to a place called 
a straw-yard. It is, properly speaking, a manure-yard, a 
dung-pit, a place fitter for manufacturing manure than for 
lodging horses. It oiten contains oxen, calves, colts, and 
swine, as well as horses. It is generally destitute of shelter, 
and the food consists of straw and hay, or of straw only. 
Often there is not even an allowance of water, except when 
the man finds it convenient and not disagreeable to carry it. 
People who bargain for a winter's run, or imprisonment, in a 
straw-yard, do sometimes pay for a small daily allowance of 
grain, which, however, is not always given. 



280 STABLE ECONOMY. 

A winter's keep in the straw-yard is going a good deal out 
of fashion, at least with people not themselves proprietors of 
such a place; but it is still too common. The horse is no< 
wanted till spring, or perhaps some lameness requires rest foi 
two or three months, and, as he can be kept in a straw-yard 
at little cost, to that place he is sent, abandoned to neglect, 
and frequently to treatment worse than neglect. He returns 
home a skeleton ; he has a cough, which is cured with diffi' 
culty, or not at all ; his feet are destroyed by thrushes ; his 
skin is covered by lice, and his bowels are full of worms. 

When the horse must be sent to such a filthy place, he needs 
neither physic nor bleeding. However lusty, he will require 
all the blood and flesh he can carry before winter expires. 
The only preparation he requires refers to the feet and to 
temperature. The frogs should be coated with pitch or tar. 
If very thrushy, they should be covered with leather soles well 
stopped up. The horse should be well inured to cold. He 
needs more preparation than when going to grass ; a straw- 
yard does not demand, nor permit, the exercise which a pas- 
tured horse must take. When he returns he must be treated 
in nearly the same way as after a winter's run at grass. More 
time is necessary to confer working condition ; and greater 
care regarding hot stables. Some treatment will probably be 
requisite to remove lice, and to expel worms. 

Every straw-yard should have a covered shed, dry and clean. 
It should have a constant supply of water, which should be 
entirely changed every day, and placed in elevated troughs, 
that it may not receive the evacuations. The fodder should 
be placed in racks under cover, and the owner should visit his 
horse every now and then. 



WATER. 291 



SIXTH CHAPTER. 

WATER. 

Thirst is a compound sensation. There are pain and a 
desire for thai which is known to remove the pain. The two 
co-exist, but the pain always precedes the desire. Tlie sen- 
sation in ordinary circumstances is governed by the wants of 
the body. Thirst depends not upon a particular state of any 
one part, but upon a particular state of all parts, to whose wel- 
fare fluid is necessary. Water is consumed in almost every 
living process. Whenever a new supply is wanted, a painful 
sensation arises which the animal hastens to relieve. The 
pain does not cease till water has been taken in sufficient 
quantity to meet the internal demand. If fluid can not be ob- 
tained, the sensation, at first only a slight uneasiness, becomes 
more vivid, and gradually proceeds to intense torture. Except 
by accident, the thirst never acquires all the intensity of which 
it is capable. But water is too often withheld till the desire 
becomes very strong and painful. It is permitted to exist so 
long that the thirst can not be allayed at once, and by the 
ordinary means. It is several minutes, possibly some hours, 
before all parts of the body can be supplied with that which 
they have so long and so urgently demanded. Thirst, there- 
fore, continues for a good while after the stomach and bowels 
have received sufficient to supply all the system. The horse 
continues to drink, however, until the pain of thirst is some- 
what lost in the pain of distension. Very often he takes so 
much as to hurt himself. When the horse has water always 
before him he never does this. But it is still doubtful whether 
all horses should have water as they please to take it. 

Thirst makes a horse refuse his food, and makes him slug- 
gish ; I am not sure if it produces any actual debility ; yet in 
many cases it comes to the same thing. If he be unwilling 
to go, a race may be lost as certainly as if he were unable to 
go. When the pain of thirst becomes very intense, the horse 
becomes unmanageable at the sight of water. He will bolt 



282 STABLE ECONOMY. 

off the road and plunge headlong into a river, clearing every 
obstacle in his way with astonishing alacrity. 

The Kind of Water perferred for horses is that which is 
soft. Hard water seems to be quite as good after the horse 
has become accustomed to it. At first it disorders the skin 
and the bowels a little. The hair stares and the skin is rigid ; 
the bowels are relaxed, and at fast work the horse is apt to 
purge. In two or three works, often in as many days, he re- 
gains his usual appearance, and continues to thrive as well on 
this hard water, as he previously did on the soft. How far 
the sudden change may affect his speed or his spirit I do not 
know. He may be weak ; and training grooms generally 
avoid hard water, in fear of its influence upon the horse's 
power. It is not likely that the skin and the bowels may be 
thus disordered without alteration in other parts ; but I have 
not been able to perceive any. Nevertheless a change from 
soft to hard water ought, if possible, to be avoided on the eve 
of a great performance. Hunters and racers travel to m&,ny 
strange places ; and when immense sums are pending upon 
their exertions, it is prudent to exclude the operation of every 
dubious agent. Possibly water may be carried with the 
horse, or inquiry may discover similar water in the neighbor- 
hood of his destination. 

Hard water may be softened a little by boiling it, and the 
addition of about half on ounce of the carbonate of soda to every 
pailful of water, renders it softer, but not, so far as I know, 
more fit for drinking. A change from hard to soft water does 
not seem to produce any visible effect upon the horse. 

Temperature of the Water. — In the stables of valuable 
horses, considerable attention is paid to the temperature of 
the water. If too cold, or supposed to be too cold, it is warm- 
ed, either by adding hot water, or by letting it stand a few 
hours in the stable or in the sun before it is given. Some- 
times a handful of meal or bran is thrown into the water, to 
take the cold air off it. Prepared in any of these ways it is 
termed chilled water, meaning, I suppose, wwchilled. In the 
stable there is a very common, though not a general dread of 
cold water. It is often given in considerable quantity to 
horses highly heated by exertion, and the men attempt to 
justify the practice by declaring that the horse is not heated 
at the heart. In theory it is always asserted that cold water 
is dangerous to a hot horse ; but in practice the theory seems 
often forgotten, especially among strappers and post-boys. 
Training and hunting all the bred grooms practise in this in- 



WATER. 283 

Stance as tliey preach. They never gh^e cold water whe^r. 
the horse is hot. 

The Effects of Cold Water vary according to the quantity 
given, and according to the state of the horse. Two or three 
quarts will not do any harm, or at the most it will set the coat 
on end. If the horse be very hot, this small quantity is very 
refreshing to him, and may be given with perfect safety. If 
the day be very warm, and the horse kept in gentle motion, 
twice or thrice as much will do no harm, however warm the 
horse may be. Yet none should be given till one or two 
minutes after the horse is pulled up. Let him recover ms 
wind for a minute before he drinks. A large quantity, say a 
pailful, of very cold water, to a horse at rest, not heated by 
exertion, may make him shiver, or it may produce pain in the 
belly, cramp of the bowels. Both the shivering and the cramp 
ma}" be prevented by putting the horse in motion ; a brisk 
walk or gentle trot. A horse much heated by exertion, which 
has produced copious perspiration, will drink more than a 
pailful, and the colder the water the more he will drink; if 
he shiver, founder may be expected in the course of an hour 
or two. If the same quantity be given when the horse is get- 
ting cool, he is almost sure to take cramp of the bowels. So 
far as my experience goes, it appears that cold water is most 
dangerous, not when the skin is at its hottest, but when it is 
becoiping cool after being very warm. I have seen cold water 
produce a kind of rheumatism. The horse is stiff all over, 
and on one or more of his legs he is lame and cramped, and 
it is several days before he recovers. I have never known 
this happen except when the horse had drunk freely of cold 
water, and eaten grain at the time he was much heated ; and 
in all the cases he had been permitted to stand at rest. I re- 
member only three cases of this kind, and it is possible the 
rheumatism might not be altogether due to the treatment, I 
suspect. This, however, a shivering fit, founder, and spas- 
modic colic, are all the evils that cold water will produce. 
I have never seen it produce any other. Their treatment, 
their symptoms, and results, it would be improper to describe ; 
but it may not be very much out of my province to mention 
that shivering is prevented and cured by motion and clothing; 
and that cramp of the bowels may be cured by four ounces 
of sweet spirits of nitre, given in a pint of warm milk, with 
about a teaspoonful of ground ginger, mustard or pepper. 

To prevent these the water must either be warmed, or it 
must be given often^r and in smaller quantity. A very tliirsty 



284 STABLE ECONOMY. 

horse should never be permitted to take so much as he 
pleases at one draught. A little, given at intervals of fifteen 
or twenty minutes, till his thirst is quenched, will prevent all 
danger, and the horse will take less upon the whole than he 
would take at first in one draught. I do not approve of 
chilled water for constant use. It makes the horse so tender 
that a very little cold water has a great effect upon him. It 
does no other harm. It need not, however, be given as it is 
taken from a deep well, or from a frozen pond. As a gen- 
eral rule, the temperature of the water should not be much 
above nor much below that of the air which the horse is 
breathing. 

The Quantity of Water which a horse will consume 
in twenty-four hours, is quite uncertain. It varies so much, 
that one will drink as much as other two or three. It is in- 
fluenced by the food, the work, the weather, and the number 
of services. While getting grass or soft food, the horse 
drinks less than wile his food is all dry ; those that eat much 
hay need more than those that eat little. The demand in- 
creases with the perspiration ; horses at fast work, and kept 
in hot stables, need a large allowance, which must be still 
larger in hot weather. When water is giv^en only twice a 
day, more is taken, or would be taken, than if it were given 
three or four times. Horses of slow, or not very fast work, 
may be permitted to take what quantity they please, provided 
always that it be given before the horse becomes very thirsty. 
For other horses, those of very fast work, occasional restric- 
tion is necessary ; and many of these are subject to habitual 
restriction. 

Occasional Restriction is necessary. When the horse is 
very thirsty, he will take more than he needs, and more than 
is safe. This I have already explained. Restriction is also 
necessary before fast work. In coaching stables the horses 
are watered about an hour before going to work. Should 
they be disposed to drink a great deal at this time, they are 
not permitted ; half an ordinary pailful ought to suffice. 
Twice as much might do harm. It might impede the breath- 
ing, and produce purgation ; yet, very often, it does neither. 
Given, however, immediately before starting, it is almost sure 
to do both. When the horse purges, his breathing becomes 
freer as he gets quit of the water. But especially on a long 
stage, the purging is very debilitating, and it makes the horse 
very lean in two or three journeys. Racers, it appears, re- 
ceive no water on running days till their work is over, and 



WATER. 285 

they are even stinted the day before running. With hunters, 
the restriction is carried nearly as far, though not so gener- 
ally. This practice has always been condemned by veterina- 
rians, and in truth it seems of very doubtful propriety. But, 
notwithstanding what has been said against it, no proof has 
been produced to show that it is realfy a pernicious practice 
Much, after all, has not been urged against it ; but the same 
thing has been said over and over again. It is always censured 
as cruel and needless and erroneous. The horse, it is said, 
must suffer a great deal from thirst, and he must be languid 
and weak. Now, if the horse be fed on dry food, and receive 
no water for twelve or eighteen hours before going to work, 
there can be little doubt but he is very thirsty. If water be 
offered he will drink it greedily. But this is not the ques- 
tion. Stablemen do not inquire what the horse feels. They 
are concerned only about w^hat he will do. If it can be 
shown that his speed, his power, or his endurance, suffers any 
diminution when he is thirsty, the trainer will doubtless en- 
deavor to prevent thirstiness. But this has never been 
shown. No experiments have been made to decide the mat- 
ter either one way or another. It seems certain that the 
thirsty horse is less willing to work. He may need more of 
the lash and the spur, but his ability to do the work, does 
that remain the same ? An experiment must answer ; and 
those who are most interested have means and opportunity to 
make it. 

If either racer or hunter were put to work with a bellyful 
of water, no work like hunting or racing would be done. The 
weight of the water, and the impediment it offers to breath- 
ing, render the horse far less fit for his task than if he were 
excessively thirsty. This is well enough established, and 
needs no experiment to confirm it. But is it not possible, 
by giving water often, and in very small quantity, to bring the 
horse to his work, without thirst, and without an inconvenient 
quantity of water in his bowels ? If the horse were accus- 
tomed to get water every two hours, it is probable that the 
quantity he would take at one time would be all out of his 
bowels by the time he received the next. He would take no 
more than would serve for two hours, and between the wa- 
t^ering-hours he could do his work undepressed by thirst. But 
all this is good for nothing except to suggest inquiry anu ex- 
periment. [We recently made the experiment of frequent 
watering, during a joirney of 800 miles, in the heat of sum- 
mer. In addition to what he would take at mealtime, we 



285 STABLE ECONOMY. 

allowed our horse to drink while on the road, every 4 to 7 
miles, as near as convenient, or as opportunity allowed. He 
would merely rinse his mouth in the water, or drink from 
one to three quarts, which seemed to refresh him sufficient- 
ly, without ever overloading his stomach or making him 
heavy. He was a superior traveller, and averaged 45 miles 
per day. From this and other shorter experiments we have 
made at various times, we think that water every hour or 
two, and ad libitum, is the best for a horse engaged in ordin- 
ary hard work.] 

Habitual Restriction. — It is Lawrence, I think, who re- 
marks that grooms consider water as at best a necessary ftvil. 
Among professional men, I mean among veterinarians, it is 
the general opinion that horses should not suffer habitual re- 
striction. It is admitted that the horse shouLl not be permit- 
ted to drink as much as he pleases when he is very thirsty, 
nor when he is hot, nor to drink largely when he is just going 
to fast work. But it is contended that, except under these 
circumstances, he should have water as much as he pleases, 
and when he pleases. A great many horses, hunters and ra- 
cers especially, and some mail-horses, are never indulged 
with an unlimited quantity of water. I have frequently in- 
quired the reason of this. Some tell me that water in unlim- 
ited quantity is dangerous ; others say that it w^ould purge 
the horse ; others, that it would break his wind ; others, that 
it would make his belly too large ; and a few declare that 
the horse will neither eat nor work if he be constantly 
confined to a small allowance of water. I would not speak 
confidently, but I am disposed to believe that there is no good 
reason for con.f^a7i^ restriction, and that the evils which grooms 
fear are those which arise from a large draught of water 
given at once, and especially when the horse is going to 
work. They carry restriction so far that the horse is always 
thirsty, and if he accidentally reach a large quantity he is al- 
most sure to drink too much. It is not considered that this 
quantity would never be taken if water were given so often 
that the horse could not become so thirsty. This appears to 
me to be the foundation of the groom's fears. 

But still there may be some other reason for withholding 
water. It is quite possible that horses may be disposed to 
consume more fluid than is good for them. They may be 
stronger or swifter than if they were permitted to drink as 
much as they pleased. This has never been proved, but a 
few experiments would set the matte^ t rest, and a point of 



WATER. 287 

such ir/ij)ortance ought not to remain unknown. We want to 
know whether a horse acquires more speed, power, or endu- 
rance, when his daily allowance of water is limited, than 
when he has water always before him, to take in such meas- 
ure, and in such quantities, as he pleases. Stable usages are 
80 often founded on ignorance and hypothesis, that we may 
well be excused for sometimes doubting their propriety, even 
when subsequent investigation proves them correct. 

It is certain, however, that a horse can be trained to 
dispense with a considerable portion of the water that he 
is accustomed to take when left to himself. By giving 
the water in four or five services, he will drink a little less 
than if it were given only thrice. But the quantity may be 
further reduced, so that in the course of two or three weeks 
the horse will not desire more than two thirds of the quantity 
he formerly consumed. Whether this be right or wrong, is 
as I have said, not settled ; but it can be done. The quantit) 
must be diminished by slow degrees, not all at once, and sc 
much must not be withheld on any day as to make the hors< 
refuse his grain. At the end of a period varying from twf 
weeks to four, the horse becomes accustomed to the spare 
allowance of water. He drinks less than formerly. The 
system, perhaps, learns to be more economical in the con- 
sumption of fluid. Less urine and less perspiration may be 
made, and less vapor may be exhaled from the lungs. 

When the daily supply of water is very materially dimin- 
ished, the horse refuses to feed. He eats some, but not so 
much as he should. He soon loses flesh, and becomes unfit 
for work ; and he does not recover until he either gets more 
water, or until the system learns to do without that which is 
denied. A certain quantity must be allowed, for the system 
can not carry on its operations without it. When Mr. Lyon 
first built his stables at Paisley, the well did not yield suffi- 
cient water, and the horses were kept on short allowance. In 
eight days they were not like the same animals ; they were 
lean, dull, and feeble, and did not recover till more water was 
obtained. 

Modes of Watering. — When the horse is at home, he is 
watered either in the stable from a pail, or in the yard from a 
trough, which, in racing establishments, is provided with a 
stout lockfast cover as security against poisoning. In gen- 
eral the horse seems to care little how he gets the water ; 
but some will drink only from the trough, except when very 
thirsty. I know of no objection to the trough, provided it be 



288 STABLE ECONOMY. 

kept clean, and that the horse do not tremble after drinking 
from it. The water, however, is often very cold, and the 
man is often so very lazy that he is unwilling to bring the 
horse to the door, and he makes two services stand for three. 
When the horse happens to be in the yard, he may get his 
water before going in ; but at other times it is as well to 
make it a rule that the water be carried to the stable. Com- 
ing from a warm stable to the open air, and drinking cold 
water, the horse is apt to take a shivering fit. Each stable 
should be provided with water-pails always full, and standing 
in the stable. 

In watering with a pail, the bucket is either placed on the 
ground, or raised manger-high to the horse's head. Old 
short-necked horses drink from the ground with difficulty, yet 
they always manage it. When the throat is sore, and when 
the horse is stiff after a day of severe exertion, his water 
should be held up to him. Some horses rarely drink well, 
and the less they drink the less they eat. They often require 
a little coaxing, and always a little patience. It is not 
enough to offer water and run away with it immediately. 
Hold the pail manger-high, and keep it before the horse for a 
little ; after washing his mouth and muzzle he may take suffi- 
cient to create an appetite. 

Post-horses are often watered on the road. They usually 
receive a little at the end of the stage, and also in the middle 
of it, if exceeding 9 or 10 miles. On the way home the post- 
boy permits the horse to drink once or twice at watering 
troughs by the road-side. He has, or should endeavor to 
have, his horse fully watered and cool by the time they ar- 
rive at stables. They are then ready for dressing and feed- 
ing without delay. 

Horses are often taken to water at a pond or river some 
distance from the stables. If they need exercise or are pas- 
sing the water, there is no objection to this practice. But it 
it is not proper to send working horses out of the stable for 
the mere purpose of watering them. The weather, the state 
of the ground, and the laziness of stablemen, render this mode 
of watering extremely irregular. Boys, too, are often em- 
ployed in this service, and they are never out of mischief. 

With many grooms it is a contmon custom to give the 
horse some exercise after drinking. Some give him a gallop, 
while others are content with a trot or canter for a few hun- 
dred yards. Exercise after a copious draught of cold wat6.' 
s very useful. It does not warm the water in the horse's 



WATER. 289 

belly, as the groom says ; but it prevents the evil effects 
which I have adverted to, in connexion with the temperature 
of water. Motion generates heat, and that which unites 
with the cold water can be better spared than if the horse 
were motionless. But the exercise need not be work. It is 
sufficient if it produce the least perceptible increase of 
warmth on the skin in 8 or 10 minutes. The man sometimes 
starts from the water at a gallop, but no good groom is guilty 
of this folly. Let the horse walk away for a few yards ; 
from a walk he may proceed to a trot, and from that to a can- 
ter. In warm weather a walk is sufficient, and the pace 
need very seldom exceed a slow trot. The object is, not to 
heat the horse, but to keep him warm, to prevent shivering. 

Water is not often given more than three times a day. But 
in hot weather, when the horse sweats much, he often needs 
more water than it is safe to give at only three services. He 
should have it four or five times, and the oftener he gets it, 
the less he will take at once. Under ordinary circumstan- 
ces two rules will guide the groom. The first is, never to 
let the horse get very thirsty ; the second, to give him water 
so often, and in such quantity, that he will not care to take 
any within an hour of going to fast work. Water should 
always be given before rather than after grain. 

Broken-winded horses are usually much restricted in theii 
water. I know that in stage-coaching they are not the worse 
of having as much as they please at night, provided it ht 
given at twice or thrice, and not too cold. 

%5 



{^90 STABLE ECONOMY 



SEVENTH CHAPTER. 

SERVICE. 

1. GENERAL PREPARATION FOR \VO!;K. II. PHYSIOLOGY Of 

MUSCULAR EXERTION. III. PREPARATION FOR FAST WORK. 

IV. PRESERVATION OF WORKING CONDITION. V. TREAT- 
MENT AFTER WORK. VI. ACCIDENTS OF V/ORK. VII. KINDS 

OF WORK. VIII. REPOSE. 

GENERAL PREPARATION FOR WORK. 

Breaking is the first process the horse undergoes to pre- 
pare him for work. His education does not, however, come 
within the limits of this treatise. It forms a part of horse- 
manship, and is best performed by men who make it their 
business. I am not intimately acquainted with the practical 
details, and shall not attempt to describe them. But I would 
make a few remarks upon what I consider the principles of 
breaking. 

The Objects of Breaking are the same in all cases, and they 
are only three in number. It should teach the horse to yield 
implicit submission to his ruler ; it should give him dexterity 
in performing his work ; and it should confer a graceful car- 
riage. When the horse has learned all these, he has no 
more to learn, or at least the breaker has nothing more to 
teach him. 

The Means employed to teach the horse vary a little, both 
in degree and in kind, according to his disposition. There 
are punishments to erforce submission, and rewards to en- 
courage it. After that is obtained, the rest is easy. To pro- 
duce dexterity at work, the horse needs nothing but practice. 
In giving his first lesson the breaker has to take certain pre- 
cautions against awkwardness, timidity, and resistance on the 
part of the horse. But, after the novelty of drawing or carry- 
ing has worn off, daily practice is all the horse needs. The 
diflicuhy is all in the beginning, and that is often much les- 



GENERAl Pl.iJPAKATION FOR WORK. 291 

Beued by giving the horse an example. A steady companion 
may be present at his first two or three lessons. If meant 
for harness, he may be yoked with a steady horse, already 
well broke and somewhat stronger than himself. He re- 
strains the colt, and serves us an example to him. Besides 
learning the horse to work, the breaker has to give him a 
graceful carriage. He must raise the head, set the horse 
upon his haunches, and teach him precision in his motions. 
Before the colt is broke, he carries the head low, leans over 
his fore legs, and has a slovenly irregular gait. These the 
breaker must correct. For a certain number of hours every 
day the head is reined up. In the stable, the bridle-reins are 
fixed one to each stall-post, and one to a surcingle on the 
horse's back. While out of the Citable, the head is supported 
by the hand, by the surcingle, or by what is termed a dumb- 
jockey, an apparatus like a St. Andrew's cross, fixed on the 
horse's back. After a time, this elevated position of the head 
becomes easy and habitual. The horse carries it so without 
support. In old horses the position of the head and neck 
can not be altered ; and when the neck is short, and set very 
low on the shoulder, it can not be much raised, even in colts 
By elevating the head and neck, the body is necessarily 
thrown more upon the hind legs ; to use the breaker's phrase, 
the horse is " set upon his haunches." This requires no 
separate process. Good action, which is the most important 
part of a graceful carriage, can not be given to all horses. 
That of the colt always improves as he becomes accustomed 
to his work. But a good horseman will produce the same, 
or greater improvement, in less than half the time that work 
alone would produce it. He employs the hand, the heel, the 
voice, and the whip, to restrain, to steady, and to push the 
horse. I think it is in this part of their business that break- 
ers oftenest fail. Most of them can teach the horse to obey, 
and to work, and to carry his head, with more or less anima- 
tion ; but few seem able to confer the steady and graceful 
action which makes a saddle-horse so valuable. - Doubtless 
there are nmny horses upon whom it can not be conferred ; 
but very often the fault is in the teacher more than in the 
taught. 

1 have not said by what means the horse is taught to obey. 
It is obvious that he can not bo taught to work unless he 
yield obedience to the breaker. Sometimes the colt is so 
rebellious that he must be mastered by force before he will 
submit to any instruction. But this does not happen very 



292 STABLE ECONOMY. 

often. Many colts are obedient from their birth. These 
have no need either for punishments or for rewards. They 
may be stupid, awkward, or timid. But these faults are not 
amended by punishment. If the colt endeavors to obey, it is 
sufficient ; and the breaker can not be too gentle. Severity 
produces stupidity or terror : the colt either stands stock still, 
or he attempts to run away. He should never be punished 
for misapprehension, nor for fear, nor for the disobedience 
which fear sometimes produces. 

The temper of a young horse is much influenced by the 
manner in which he has been reared. If early accustomed 
to be handled and to have people about him, and to be kindly 
treated, he is easily subdued, even though his natural temper 
may be none of the best. For the first two or three months 
of his domestication, his anger and resentment should not be 
excited by any painful operation, nor by requiring any painful 
service from him. He may be haUered, groomed, clothed, 
led about, over and over again, before he suffers anything 
alarming or painful. In a short time the colt acquires com- 
plete confidence in the people about him ; he yields obedi- 
ence because he fears no evil. Ultimately, by the time he is 
wanted for breaking, the habit of submission may be so com- 
pletely established, that the colt will do much that he is not 
fond of doing, and sufl;er a great deal before he rebels. But 
if permitted to run wild till three or four years old, he is sure 
to offer considerable resistance to the breaker; and if never 
accustomed to have men about him, except when he must be 
harshly treated, he will be either a very timid horse or a very 
savage one. It can not be otherwise. The young animal is 
tiius taught to regard man as his persecutor ; the timid fly, 
and the bold resist or retaliate. 

The breaker must modify his treatment according to the 
temper of the colt. In general, I think he mingles endear- 
ment and punishment so much that the colt is at a loss to 
understand him. A silent breaker succeeds soonest, one 
who says little or nothing, either to soothe or to threaten. 
Much bustling and caressing often create suspicion ; an angry 
tone or a touch of the lash rouses alarm or resentment, as 
often as it produces obedience. When placed in a novel 
situation, the colt should be allowed a httle time to compose 
himself. For example, when he is first backed, he may 
stand still for a moment, or he may move on as he pleases ; 
if disposed to plunge about, and attempt to unseat the rider 
he must just be restrained, partly by the rider, and partly by 



GENERAL PREPARATION FOR WORK. 



293 



an assistant. Upon no account should the rider come off, ot 
be thrown off. If the colt will not move, if he can be neither 
led nor driven forward, the lash must be applied. At this, 
the first struggle, the colt must be compelled to obey. He 
should be punished in good earnest. If he gam the first 
battle he will be sure to make a struggle for the second, and 
the third, until he acquires a habit of rebelling wherever and 
whenever obedience is demanded. It is much better, how- 
ever, if punishment can be dispensed with, especially at an 
early stage of the breaking. Gentle measures are to be fairly 
tried, and not abandoned till they have fairly failed. The 
lash should be the last resource, and it ought never to be ap- 
plied unless the horse can fully understand why. 

Very rebeUious colts are sometimes worked and starved 
till they are a good deal reduced. It is a certain mode ot 
subduing the very wildest ; but must not be carried so far as 

^^ fTcolt shoufd^be halter-broke at three weeks old, and may 
be broken in to do very light work in harness at two years 
old • but should not be backed, except by a small boy, till 
three years old, and a very light man, till four years old. it 
he is backed earlier than this by a heavy man, the weight 
upon him is so great, that he can not lift his fore feet suf- 
ficiently high in his action, and he is consequently apt to 
make a stumbler for life ; and he rarely carries himself with 
that lightness, ease, and freedom, under the saddle that he 
otherwise would, if not backed by so heavy a weight at this 
early age. It is also liable to injure the spine and- make the 
horse hollow-backed. , 

A simple bitting bridle is the best mstrument to prepare the 
horse for breaking. After being well bitted, he may be har- 
nessed daily for a week or so, then be taken out and led by 
the side of another horse ; then driven along some qmet place 
with him; then on the road; and finally, hitched m along- 
side to a light vehicle, for regular work. After thus driving 
him a few weeks, let him stand under the saddle a few days 
then mounted and ridden by the side of a well-tramed horse. 
In learning him to back, commence on descendmg groui.a 
where the vehicle will run back of itself and so gradually 
come to ascending ground. We have broke many horses in 
this way, several of which were naturally rather vicious and 
most of them very high-spirited, and yet we ^^ver had oc- 
casion to strike a blow, or use any harsh means whateve^^^^ 
accomplish our object. Horses only want to be properly 

25 



294 STABLE ECONOMY. 

taught to do pU that can be reasonably required of them. 
Their best instructer is on^ of their own species, who is ac- 
tive, patient, kind in temper, and perfectly broke, to work 
alongside of till they have learned what is necessary. They 
are creatures of imitation as well as man ; and they often er 
sin from ignorance, timidity, or fright, than from any other 
cause. Give them a good example and they will generally 
follow it. Something of their grace and ease of movement, 
and quickness of walk, trot, and gallop, will depend upon the 
person breaking and training them.] 

Inuring to the Stable and Stable Treatment. — A 
-change of lodging, or of diet, is often a cause of disease. 
When a fresh horse is procured, it is well to know how he 
has been treated during the previous month. If a valuable 
animal, he will be worth this inquiry ; if low-priced he may 
not. Horses that come from a dealer have probably been 
standing in a warm stable, well-clothed, well-groomed, highly 
fed, and seldom exercised. They have fine glossy coats, 
they are in high spirits, they are lusty ; but their flesh is soft 
and flabby. They are unflc for fast work. They are easily 
heated by exertion, and when the least warm they are very 
apt to catch cold. But wherever the horse come from, or 
whatever be his condition, changes in reference to food, tem- 
perature, and work, must be effected by slow degrees. It is 
absurd and always pernicious to take a horse from the fields, 
or a straw-yard, and put him in a warm stable, and on rich 
food all at once ; it is not less erroneous to take him from a 
warm to a cold stable, or to demand exertion to which he has 
not been trained. 

When the horse's history can not be traced, both his work 
and his diet should at first be moderate. More of either than 
he has been accustomed to, will do more harm than less of 
either. It may, however, be soon known whether he has 
been doing much work. It is ascertained by trying him. 
If fit for work, he may be fed in proportion. The tempera- 
ture of the stable had bettor be warmer than colder. If too 
warm, the horse will perspire ; his coat here and there will 
be damp or wet, especially in the morning when the stables 
are first opened. If it be too cold, the coat will stare and be- 
come dim ; and the horse will catch cold. He will cough. 

Inuring to the Weather. — The work of some horses 
exposes them much to the weather. Those employed in 
street-coaches, in the carriages of medical men, all those. that 
have to stand in the weather, can never do so with safety till 



GENERAL PREPARATION FOR WORK. 295 

they have been seasoned. In the cold rainy months, many 
are destroyed ; and many more endangered by injudicious 
exposure. Wet weather is the most pernicious, yet it is not 
the rain alone that does the mischief. If the horse be kept 
in motion, and afterward perfectly and quickly dried, or be 
kept in motion till dry, he suffers no injury. His coat may 
be bleached till it is like a dead fur ; but the horse does not 
catch cold. If allowed to stand at rest with his coat drenched 
in rain, the surface of the body rapidly loses its heat. There 
is no stimulus to the formation of heat ; the blood circulates 
slowly, accumulates internally, and oppresses vital organs, 
especially the lungs. The legs become excessively cold and 
benumbed ; the horse can hardly use them, and, when put in 
motion, he strikes one against another. Exposure, when it 
deprives the body of heat in this way, is a fertile source of 
inflamed lungs, of thoracic influenza, catarrh, and founder. 
When the skin is wet, or the air very cold, the horse should, 
if possible, be kept in motion, which will preserve him, how- 
ever little he may have been accustomed to exposure. 

Horses that have been kept in warm stables, and never out 
but in genial weather, are in most danger. If they can not 
be kept in constant motion, they must be prepared before they 
are exposed. If they commence work in summer or early 
in autumn, they will be fully inured to the weather before the 
worst part of winter arrives. But if they commence at 
this trying period, they should be out only one or two hours 
at a time : on good days they may be longer. No precise 
rule can be given. The length of time for which a horse 
may be exposed without danger, varies with his condition, 
the weather, and the work. It should shorten with the wet- 
ness or coldness of the weather, and the tenderness of the 
horse. If he must run rapidly from one place to another, and 
wait perhaps half an hour at each, he is in more danger than 
if the pace were slower, and the time of waiting shorter ; and 
if moved about constantly, or every ten minutes, he suffers 
less injury than if he were standing still. After a time the 
horse is inured to exposure, and may be safely trusted in the 
severest weather. 

Repeated and continued application of cold to the surface 
of the body stimulates the skin to produce an extra supply of 
heat. The exposure of two or three days is not sufficient to 
rouse the skin to this efibrt. It is always throwing off a 
large quantity of heat; but it is several days, with many 
horses it is several weeks before the skin can assume activi- 



296 STABLE ECONOMY. 

ty sufficient to meet the demands of a cold or wet atmosphere 
UltiiiKitely it becomes so vigorous that the application of cold 
whether wet or dry, is almost instantly followed by an in 
creased production of heat. To this there are limits. By 
exposure, gradually increasing in length and frequency, the 
system may become able to maintain the temperature at a 
comfortable warmth for three or four successive hours, even 
when the horse is standing at rest in wet or cold. But he 
can not endure this beyond a certain point. Exhaustion and 
emaciation succeed, in spite of all the food the horse can eat. 
The formation of so much heat consumes the nutriment that 
ought to produce vigor for work. Hence, working horses 
kept very much in very cold stables are always lean and dull. 

It is chiefly the horses that have to stand in the weather 
which require preparation for exposure. Bleeding, purging, 
and other means, which debilitate or emaciate, are never 
necessary in this process. Hunting, stage-coach, and cart 
norses, seldom require any preparation for exposure. Thev 
are in motion from the time of leaving till the time of re- 
turning to the stable. They just require to be well and 
quickly dried when wet. 

Inuring to the Harness. — New horses are very liable 
to have the skin injured by the harness. The friction of the 
saddle, collar, or traces, produces excoriation. In some 
horses this is not altogether avoidable, especially when they 
are in poor condition. Their skin is tender, and a little mat- 
ter exposes the quick. In all horses it is some time before 
the skin thickens, and becomes sufficiently callous to carry 
the harness without injury. The time it requires to undergo 
this change is variable, and can not be materially shortened 
by any means. But attention to the harness will frequently 
prevent excoriation. After every journey the neck should be 
closely examined. If there be any spot, however little abra- 
ded, hot and tender, when pinched, that part of the collar 
which produced it, should be cut out before the next journey. 
The guard or safe, is a useful article to prevent galls of this 
kind. It is merely a thin slip of soft leather, covering the 
seat of the collar. It obviates friction, and prevents injurious 
pressure from any little protuberance or hardness in the stuf- 
fing of the collar. On the first or second journey a new 
horse often comes in with his neck somewhat inflamed ; it is 
hot, tender, and covered with pimples. In the stables it is 
said to he Jired. A solution of common salt in water is usu- 
ally applied, and it serves to allay the inflammation ; it should 



GENERAL PREPARATION FOR WORK 297 

De applied whenever the collar is removed. Tumors, con* 
lainirig bloody water, frequently rise on the neck. They 
should be opened immediately, emptied, and kept open for a 
few days. The piece must be taken out of the collar, and a 
safe used. On a hilly road the lower part of the collar often 
galls the neck very seriously, in spite of every alteration in 
the stuffing. A broad strap, attached to the top of the collar, 
and passing over the windpipe, is the only remedy. The 
strap should be two inches broad, and drawn tight enough to 
keep the collar steady, and to make it stand nearly upright. 
It should be adjusted before the head is put on the bearing 
rein. It should be worn till the neck is quite sound. [A 
broad breast band may be substituted for the neck collar, till 
the neck and shoulders get well. A horse will pull about as 
well in this as in the collar and hames.] When the traces, 
crupper, or pad, threaten, or produce excoriation, they must be 
kept ofi" by cushions placed behind, before, or to each side of 
,the part injured. 

The back requires nearly as much care as the neck. A 
new saddle is objectionable for a new horse, particularly when 
he has to travel far under a heavy rider. A tender back may 
be hardened by frequent use of the saddle, and a light weight. 
The horse may stand saddled in the stable, and saddled when 
he goes to exercise. When the back is hot, and the skin 
disposed to rise in tumors, the saddle should remain on till 
the back be cool. Slacken the girths, raise the saddle for a 
moment, and then replace it. Its weight prevents tumors ; 
excoriation and firing must be treated as on the neck. Al- 
ways let the pannels of the saddle be dry before it is again 
used, and put it on half an hour before the horse is to be 
movnted. 

Inuring to Exertion. — Horses from whom extraordinary 
exertions are not demanded ; those that are never expected 
nor required to do all that a horse is capable of doing, stand 
in little need of inurement to work, and it is seldom that any 
is intentionally given. When a saddle or draught-horse is 
purchased, he is often put to his work at once without any 
preparation. He is treated as if he were as able for the work 
as it is possible to make him. So long as the work is slow, 
and not very laborious, he may perform it well enough. But 
this system will not do for full work, whether fast or slow. If 
the horse have been idle for a month or two, he is weak. It 
matters little that he is plump and in good spirits. He may 
be able to draw a load of twenty r thjrtv hundred weight 



298 STABLE ECONOMY. 

with ease, and perhaps to draw it a considerable distance 
But next day he is sore all over, stiff, feeble, dull, almost un- 
able to c; rry his own weight. If the same work be exacted 
day after day, the horse loses flesh, and at last becomes unfit 
for any -work. But if the work be less severe at first, and 
gradual' y increase from week to week, the horse at last ac- 
quires strength and endurance greater perhaps than he ever 
before possessed. He is then able to do with ease as much 
in a we(ik as would have completely knocked him up at the 
beginnhig. For slow moderate work this is all the prepara- 
tion the horse needs. At first let it be very gentle ; and the 
weight he is to carry or draw, and the distance he is to travel, 
may be increased as he is found able to bear it. In preparing 
the horse for work, such as hunting, racing, or coaching, the 
treatment must be somewhat different. See the next two 
sections. 



PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCULAR EXERTION. 

By this I mean an account of what is going on in different 
parts of the body during exertion. Motion produces certain 
changes, and it is good to know what they are, and for what 
reason they occur. All can not be traced ; but it is satisfac- 
tory to know all that can be known. A few preliminary re- 
marks are necessary upon 

The Circulation of the Blood. — This fluid is dis- 
tributed over every portion of the frame. Without its agency 
there is nothing done in any part of the body ; and, in per- 
forming its varied duties, it suflers some alteration, which 
renders it unfit to reproduce the same effects, or perform the 
same functions, until it has acquired something it has lost, and 
parted with something it has gained. The purification, or re- 
generation, takes place chiefly in the lungs. To these organs, 
which almost entirely fill the chest, the blood must be con- 
ducted. It is collected from every tissue, by veins infinitely 
numerous and small ; too numerous to be counted, and too 
small to be traced even with the aid of optical instruments. 
These, as they approach the heart, concentrate, become lar- 
ger and fewer, till they end in two main trunks of very large 
size, which pour their contents into a cavity on the right side 
of the heart. The heart sends this blood to the lungs, by 
one large tube. This, running into the substance of the lungs, 
divides and subdivides, till its branches become so numerous 
and minute that they can not be distinguished from the tissue 



PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCULAR EXERTION. 299 

in which they are embedded. Nevertheless these veins form 
but a small portion of the lungs. There is another set of 
vessels, equally minute and numerous, for taking the blood 
back to the heart. In its passage through the lungs, the blood 
is exposed to the air, which acts upon it, though covered from 
actual contact. The blood is thus changed in composition. It 
is purified, losing something or gaining something, and is 
ready again to perform the duties of which it had previously 
become incapable. In this state it is collected from the lungs, 
and taken to the cavity in the left side of the heart, whence it 
is sent by another set of tubes to be distributed over the 
body. These are termed arteries ; as they pass into the sub- 
stance of parts, their ultimate arrangement can not be traced. 
In the hidden recesses, the blood performs its functions. 
There it produces changes on the tissue, and is itself changed. 
It suffers some deterioration, or alteration, v/hich can not be 
rectified till it reaches the lungs, to which the veins collect 
.and carry it. 

The blood is in constant motion. It is not all altered at 
one time, nor at one place At some particular places the 
alteration may be greater than at others ; but the best and the 
worst are mingled together on their road to the heart. Under 
ordinary circumstances, the purification keeps pace with the 
deterioration. Both go on simultaneously, and to an equal 
legree. But in some cases the equilibrium is deranged. 

Muscular Exertion produces at least four important 
changes. It quickens the circulation ; it quickens the breath- 
ing ; it increases the formation of heat ; and it produces per- 
spiration. The muscles are the active instruments of motion. 
They act by alternate contraction and relaxation ; their active 
state is that of contraction. They shorten, and their ends 
being fixed to different bones, motion takes place from the 
joints. The animal wills to move, and the muscles instantly 
produce the motion desired. The direction and velocity, the 
force and duration of the motion, are regulated entirely by 
the will of the animal. But, in order that the muscles may 
obey, it is an indispensable condition that they have an abun- 
dant supply of pure blood. In action they consume more than 
at rest. 

Quickness of the Circulation is therefore a necessary con- 
sequence of muscular exertion. The muscles demand more 
blood ; and the heart hastens to furnish it by performing 
double, treble, or more than treble its usual number of strokes. 
When the horse is at rest, the heart contracts from thirty to 



300 STABLE ECONOMY. 

forty times in a minute. Every contraction drives a columa 
of blood through the arteries. At slow work the heart may 
beat from fifty to seventy times per minute ; but at fast work 
it sometimes makes more than one hundred and forty strokes 
in a minute. 

Quickness of (he Breathing occurs almost simultaneously 
with the quickness of the circulation. There is a little time, 
however, it may be only a few seconds, between them ; the 
circulation has the start. Acceleration of the breathing fol- 
lows, in order that the blood may be purified as fast as it is 
circulated. At rest, the horse respires from six to eight times 
per minute ; at slow work he may breathe twice as fast, and 
at very fast work, he may respire more than one hundred and 
thirty times per minute. The velocity of the blood must 
keep pace with the exertion of the muscles, and the respira- 
tion must quicken as the circulation quickens. The action 
of each is, in a certain measure, influenced by that of the 
other, but each is also limited in its individual powers. The 
muscles can not act if the heart do not give them sufficient 
blood ; the heart can not give the blood if the lungs do not 
purify it ; but the muscles may tire, even though well sup- 
plied by blood ; or the heart may tire, though the lungs con- 
tinue vigorous. Deficiency in either deranges the others. 

Exertion may raise the pulse to one hundred and forty, and 
the breathing to one hundred and thirty ; but at this rate, 
neither the heart nor the lungs can work long. After a period, 
which varies with the condition of the horse, the blood be- 
gins to accumulate in the right side of the heart. It is diffi- 
cult to say what part is first in fault. The heart may be ex- 
hausted, unable to force the blood through the lungs ; or the 
lungs may be unable to purify and transmit the blood as fast 
as the heart sends it ; or the muscles which produce breathing 
ma;^ tire, and become unable to expand the chest, sufficiently 
to admit the blood and the air into the lungs ; or, possibly, 
heart, lungs, and muscles, may all be at fault, some more, some 
less : whichever way it happen, the blood begins to accumu- 
late, first in the right side of the heart, and then in the lungs. 
After this stagnation commences, the horse is not able to go 
much further. The muscles do not receive enough of blood ; 
and that which they do receive is not good. The obstruction 
in the lungs forbids perfect purification. The horse becomes 
feeble, is disposed to slacken his pace, and some stand still 
before they are very much distressed. But such is the dis- 
position of certain horses ; one will run on till he is blind, 



PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCULAR EXERTION. 30l 

Staggering, and stumbling ; at last he falls, and rises no more. 
He dies suffocated. Upon dissection, the lungs are found so 
gorged with blood that almost no air could enter them. 

At the first indications of distress the horse should be pulled 
up, or his pace should be slackened ; half a minute may be 
sufficient to restore ---strength to the heart, the lungs, or the 
muscles, whichever be in fault ; the stagnation or accumula- 
tion ceases, and the blood passes on free and pure. 

All increased for malxon of Heat is the third effect of muscular 
exertion. The surface of the body becomes warm or hot ; 
more than the usual quantity of heat is evolved. It has never 
been supposed that this is a necessary or useful consequence 
of exertion. Acceleration of the blood and of the breathing 
must take place in order that the muscles may produce pro- 
gression. But it is not believed that an extra quantity of hea^ 
is useful either as an assistant or as a principal. It is well 
known that fast work does least mischief in cool or cold 
weather ; and it appears that there is a contrivance almost 
for the express purpose of removing the superfluous heat. 
Most probably the evolution of heat is an unavoidable result 
of increased velocity in the circulation. 

Perspiratioji is the fourth effect of exertion. By this pro- 
cess the body is relieved from superfluous heat, and super- 
fluous fluid. It is always refreshing. It enables the horse 
to perform his work with less distress ; but when he has 
little superfluous fluid in him it always produces subsequent 
exhaustion. A fat or plump horse may be all the better of a 
good sweat ; he may be fitter for his work next day than if he 
had not perspired. A very poor horse can not so well afford 
such a loss of fluid ; the more he sweats to-day, the less spirit 
and strength ho has to-morrow. Both, however, are refreshed, 
though not perhaps in equal degrees, by perspiring at their 
work. In both, the perspiration combines with the super- 
fluous heat, and carries it off in vapor. The evaporation 
regulates the heat of the surface. If it were possible to con- 
fine the heat which rapid exertj,on produces, it is probable the 
horse would soon be fevered. But it is not possible to do this, 
for whenever the skin becomes very warm, perspiration follows 
almost immediately. 

Some horsemen, and especially, I believe, post-boys and 
stage-coachmen, are in the habit of throwing a pailful of cold 
water over the horse's body in the middle of a long stage on 
a hot day. Most people would regard this as a very violent 
and thoughUess proceeding. To deluge a horse with cold 

26 



302 STABLE ECONOMY. 

water, when reeking hot, and perspiring at every pore, ap' 
pears to be a dangerous practice I can not speak from very 
extensive experience of this, but so far as I have been able to 
see, there is no danger in the case, so long as two rules are 
observed : the effusion must not be carried so far as to make 
the skin perceptibly cold ; — and the horse must be put in mo- 
tion directly after it is done. One or at most two bucket- 
^uls may be dashed over the body, as equally as possible ; 
and the horse should immediately resume his journey ; or, if 
his journey be over, the water must be scraped off, and the 
horse moved about till he be quite dry. The danger lies in 
letting him stand till he shivers. With these precautions, I 
have never seen the cold effusion do any harm, and I know 
well that it is highly refreshing to a heated and travel-worn 
horse, on a hot day. The water withdraws the redundant 
fieat, which oppresses the horse, and which he can get quit 
of only by a process comparatively slow in its operation and 
expensive to the system. The fat, plump horse, having plenty 
of superfluous fluid to spare, may not be so much in need of 
the cold effusion, but he also is much refreshed by it, par- 
ticularly after he has already perspired copiously. After the 
temperature of the skin is fast sinking to its natural standard, 
effusion is both useless and dangerous. 

Acceleration of the circulation and of respiration, the genera- 
tion of heat, and perspiration, are the immediate and most im- 
portant effects of exertion. But there are other changes, 
which can not be distinctly traced, either in number or in 
order. The few that can be described do not appear to de- 
mand any notice but what they obtain in other parts of this 
work. A minute analysis is not necessary, though it might 
be interesting, and to the practitioner useful. It may be suf- 
ficient to observe in this place, that the nerves, the blood- 
vessels, the muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints, undergo 
a slight change of state every time the horse is put to work. 
With some of these par<s the alteration becomes apparent only 
after the change has been produced often, and at short inter- 
vals. The change of state, '*in whatever it may consist, is 
beneficial to a horse that has been long idle. By degrees i; 
renders all the parts better able to perform their duties. Un- 
der proper management the alteration goes on progressively, 
until each part and each organ have attained all the improve- 
ment of which they are susceptible. When muscular exer- 
tion is pushed beyond a certain point, an injurious alteration 
takes place in some of the organs connected with motion 



PREPARATION FOR FAST WORK. 303 

'I'ne improvement of motive parts is considered in the nex.' 
section ; the deterioration in that which follows it. 

PREPARATION FOR FAST WORK. 

The natural powers of the horse, contrasted with those he 
acquires, are feeble beyond what a stranger can conceive. 
Some people are prone to talk nonsense about nature. They 
would have horses placed as nearly as possible in a wild state, 
or a state of nature, which, I suppose, means the same thing. 
In the open fields the horse, it is said, has pure air, a whole- 
some diet, and exercise ^od for the limbs and the constitu- 
aon. God never intended so noble an animal to suffer con- 
finement in a dark and narrow dungeon, nor to eat the artificial 
food provided by man. Much more is said ; but it is not worth 
repeating. The truth is, setting argument aside, we must have 
service, even at the hazard of producing diseases that never 
occur in a state of nature. Before the horse can do all, or 
half of all that he is capable of doing, he must be completely 
domesticated. In the artificial management to which he is 
subjected there are many errors ; but instead of condemning 
the system by wholesale, it were wiser to rectify what is 
wrong. A horse, kept in a state of nature, would not last 
half a day in the hunting-field ; and at stage-coaching two or 
three days would kill him. 

Conditioning, Training, and Seasoning, as words, havo 
nearly the same meaning. The first is used most in reference 
to hunters, but occasionally to all kinds of horses ; the second 
is confined almost entirely to racers ; and the third to horses 
employed in public conveyances, mails, stage-coaches, and so 
forth. They relate solely to the processes and agents by which 
strength, speed, and endurance, are conferred. The terms have 
little or nothing to do with the precautionary measures coi;- 
sidered in the first section of this chapter ; they are limited 
to the means by which the horse is inured to saver e exertion. 
As I proceed I use the words synonymously, and employ 
vreparation, ox preparing for work, with the same meaning. 

The Objects of Training, whether for the turf, the road, 
or the field, are the same. They vary in degree only, not in 
kind. For either of these purposes the horse must have 
speed, strength, and endurance. This last word is not quite 
so expressive as I wish. It is intended to signify lasting 
speed ; it relates to the distance ; speed is in relation to time ; 
strength, to the weight carried or drawn. In stables, the 



304 STABLE ECONOMY 

words length and stoutness are used for endurance. These 
three properties are common to all horses, but they exist in 
various degrees of combination. The age, breed, formation, 
a.nd condition, exercise great influence upon them.* Youn^ 
horses generally have more speed than stoutness : at, and af- 
ter maturity, stoutness is in greater perfection than speed. 
Wiiat are termed thorough-bred horses have speed, strength, 
and endurance, more of each in combination than any other 
breed. It would require a long chapter to consider ill that 
might be said in connexion with formation ; I pass ir "iver, 
only observing that large, long-striding horses generallj' have 
more speed, but less endurance, \\^ lower compact h'^rses. 
The formation has a great deal to do with strength, and there- 
fore this property is less under the influence of training than 
the others are. Training does not enable the horse to carry 
or draw much more than he can naturally, when in good 
health and spirits ; but it enables him to carry a given weight 
farther and faster. The condition of the horse is the last cir- 
cumstance I mention, as influencing his working properties. 
This is a matter of great importance. A horse, say a race- 
horse, may be of the right age, his pedigree may have no stain, 
and his formation no fault; he may be in perfect health, sound 
in wind and limb, but notwithstanding all this, the horse may 
be in a very bad condition ; that is, for running a race. He 
may have too much carcass, he may have too much flc3h 
about him, he may be short-winded, and his muscles may be 
unfit for protracted exertion. To put these into that state 
which experience has proved the best for a particular kind of 
work, forms the business of training, conditioning, seasoning. 
Before considering all the agents and processes employed by 
the trainer, I would make a few remarks upon the size of the 
oelly, the state of the muscles, the state of the breathing, And 
the quantity of flesh. 

Size of the Belly. — Horses that are fed on bulky food, and 
tliose that are very fat, have a large belly. In one, its size 
is produced entirely by the contents of the intestines ; they 
may be laden with grass, hay, straw, or other food, of which 
much must be eaten to furnish the required amount of nutri- 
ment, and there is always a good deal of water along with 
this coarse food. One dose of physic, or at the most two 
doses, will empty the bowels. In another case the size of 
the belly arises from an accumulation of fat inside. This is 

• There are some others, particularly the temper and the state of the 
legs. 



PREPARATION FOR FAST WORK. 305 

•emovable only by slow degrees. Purgation, sweating, and 
other evacuants, take it away. In a third case, the size of 
the carcass depends partly upon the intestinal contents, and 
partly upon the accumulation of fat. 

When the belly is very large, from either or both of these 
causes, the horse cannot breathe freely. He can not expand 
the chest, the contents of the belly olTer a mechanical obstacle 
to the elongation of this cavity ; and, as a necessary con- 
sequence, sufficient air can not be taken in to purify sufficient 
blood. But the weight of the fat, or of the food, is of itself a 
great burden, and would tell seriously against the horse in 
protracted exertion, eveiigthough it were placed on his back. 

The trainer should know when the carcass ift sufficiently 
lightened. He judges by the horse's wind. When that is 
equal to the work, further reduction in the size of the belly 
may not be necessary. Hence, for some kinds of work, it 
need not be so much lightened as for some others. Without 
inconvenience the hunter may have a larger belly than the 
racer, and the stage-coach horse larger than either. Hunters 
and racers should have a straight carcass, not at all pro- 
tuberant, and seldom much tucked up ; but it is often very 
difficult or impossible to put a straight carcass upon flat-sided 
horses. 

After the carcass is sufficiently lightened, it is to be kept 
within the prescribed limits by avoiding idleness and bulky 
food. The work or exercise must be such as to prevent the 
re-formation of fat, and the food such as to furnish the requir- 
ed quantity of nourishment without occupying too much room. 
Fast-working horses are kept on a limited allowance of fod- 
der, and the usual allowance is further reduced on the day 
preceding extraordinary exertion. This precaution, however 
is requisite only with great eaters, or gluttons, as they have 
been termed, employed at hunting or racing. 

In former times the grooms had a strange mode of redu- 
cing the belly. They bound a strong and very broad roller 
round it, drew it as tight as a woman's corsets, and compelled 
the horse to stand in it night and day. This absurd practice 
is now out of fashion. Those who know their business know 
that it will not produce the desired effect. But it is not un- 
common, even yet, to find a broad surcingle applied as tightly 
as it can be drawn, for the purpose, as they say, of drawing 
up the belly. 1 have seen a good groom do this. It is a 
mark of ignorance. The roller which was formerly used 
might possibly have some effect, for it went over the belly ; 

26* 



306 STABLE ECONOMY. 

but the surcingle now used acts altogether upon the ches-. 
which training ought to expand rather than contract,. 

State of the Muscles. — Exertion, under certain regulations, 
produces a particular state of the muscles, the parts of mo- 
tion, and of the nerves, the blood, and the blood-vessels, by 
which the muscles are supplied. Neither anatomy nor physi- 
ology is able to describe the change which those parts under- 
go in training. The eye, indeed, discovers a difference in 
the texture and the color of the muscles. Those which have 
been much in use are redder, harder, and tougher, than those 
that have had little to do. They contain more blood, and 
that blood is of a more decided red color. They are also a 
little larger, when compared with a corresponding muscle of 
less work. More than this dissection does not reveal. It is 
known, without any dissection, that the instruments of mo- 
tion exist in different states ; that in one state their action 
is slow and feeble ; in another state it is rapid and powerful ; 
and that in certain states they can rpjaintain their action for a 
much longer time than in certain other states. 

For practical purposes it is not perhaps of much conse- 
quence to learn all the changes which the muscles, the blood, 
the blood-vessels, and the nerves, must undergo, before the 
horse can possess the condition which his work demands. It 
may bo enough to know that the condition, in whatever it 
may consist, can be conferred only by exertion. There are 
numerous auxiliaries, and various modes of giving and of 
regulafirig exertion ; but until it has produced the requisite 
alteration in the muscles, and their appendages, there can 
never be any remarkable degree of speed nor endurance. 

State, of the Breathing. — I have said that the horse's breath- 
ing can not be free so long as a large belly interferes with the 
action of the lungs. • To lighten a large carcass is to improve 
the wind. But I am persuaded that the lungs themselves may 
undergo a change particularly favorable to protracted exertion. 
Though I can not offer any proof of this, I think the alterations 
which take place in other parts of the body make it appear 
probable that the lungs also are altered. It is reasonable to 
suppose that the tubes which carry the blood, and those which 
carry the air, suffer some increase of calibre ; and that the 
lungs taken altogether, become a little larger. Such an al- 
teration seems necessary to account for the visible change 
which takes place in the breathing. As training proceeds, 
the horse becomes less and less distressed by exertion, 
and ultimately acquires the power of doing that which 



PREPARATION FOR FAST WORK. 307 

would have killed him at the beginning ; and the cause of 
death would have been found in the lungs. I can offer nc 
other proof in favor of this supposition. It vi^ill be observed 
in many parts of this work, that I am compelled to suggest in- 
quiry when it would have been more pleasant to state the re- 
sult of inquiry already made. But these matters have been 
so much neglected, that it does not seem to have occurred to 
anybody that investigation is needful. Our knowledge is in- 
complete, yet no one speaks as if there were anything to 
learn. [It is far more complete than our author thought. He 
had not learned it himself, and commits the error of thinking 
that no one else had.] 

It is well enough known, however, that to improve the 
wind the horse must have a great deal of exertion. Purging, 
sweating, and other emaciating processes, remove all obstruc- 
tion to the lungs ; exertion, at such a pace as to quicken the 
breathing, does the rest. But all horses do not need the 
same quantity of work to improve their wind. In some it is 
naturally very good. They have large nostrils, a wide wind- 
pipe, and a deep chest. By proper training their breathing 
becomes remarkably free and easy ; hardly any pace or dis- 
tance produces distress. They go as far and as fast as the 
legs can carry them. When over- worked it is generally the 
legs, not the lungs, that fail. There are as many other hor- 
ses whose wind is bad, never very good by any manage- 
ment. They have small nostrils, and a small chest, neither 
deep nor wide. In these the wind fails before the legs ; 
work makes the others leg-weary ; these it over-marks, pro- 
ducing congestion, or inflammation in the lungs. These hor- 
ses are never fit for long races. 

However good or bad the vvind may be before training, it 
always improves more or less as training proceeds. It is im- 
proved at the same time, and by the same means, that power 
is giver. !o the muscular system. But exertion maybe so re^ru- 
lated that the muscular system shall acquire all the energy of 
which it is capable, and yet the wind may be neglected and 
defective. Short distances give power and alacrity to the 
muscles, but long distances are necessary to improve the 
wind. The horse must go far enough and fast enough to 
quicken the breathing, but not at any time so far nor so fast 
as to distress him very much. When the chest is defective, 
or when there is a strong tendency to the formation and accu- 
mulation of fat, the horse may need a great deal of exertion to 
render his wind fit for his work ; and, in either case, he must 



308 STABLE ECONOMY. 

have good legs to stand the exertion. When the legs and 
;he chest are both defective, the horse will turn out a very or- 
dinary animal. He will last longer at slow than at fast work. 

Quantity of Flesh. — When the horse goes into preparation 
for work he is sometimes lean. He may have been half 
starved. He may be so low in flesh that he has neither abil- 
ity nor inclination to make exertion. To get such a horse 
ready for fast-work, we must begin with feeding. He may 
require a little medicine, but in general it is sufficient to let 
him have plenty of good food, and gentle exercise, enough to 
keep him in health. As he takes on flesh his exercise must 
increase both in pace and distance. Though not given in 
such measure as to keep the horse very lean, it must must be 
severe enough to prevent the formation of fat in his belly. To 
keep his carcass light and his wind good, he must have an 
occasional gallop. 

But the horse is rarely very lean when he goes into train- 
ing. Most generally he is plump, fat, full of flesh, and in 
high spirits. In this state he is easily injured by exertion. 
He has so much animation that he is willing to do more than 
is good for him. The very lean horse seldom has the incli- 
nation. 

Hunters and racers are idle, or nearly so, for two or three 
months before they go into training. During this time they 
are so well fed that they acquire much more flesh than they 
can safely carry at work. The trainer has to remove a good 
deal of this superfluous flesh. Why is it ever put on ? I have 
elsewhere observed that I think these horses, while idle, 
should be fed in such a way that they may not be fat, though 
they may be plump and hearty by the time they go into train- 
ing. But, possibly, there may be something which I have not 
considered that may forbid this. I would recommend a trial 
of one horse, or two only. 

In all horses, not very lean, there are certain juices, solids, 
and fluids, which do not contribute in any degree to produce, 
or to aid, muscular exertion. Most of the superfluous matter 
consists of fat ; part lines the belly, part lies in the connex- 
ions of the intestines ; some lies below the skin, and some 
between the muscles, and in the texture of the muscles. Hor- 
ses that are never accustomed to pass a walk or a slow trot, 
carry a great deal of the fat in their belly ; others of fast 
work carry the largest portion under the skin ; it covers the 
libs, where it is carried with least inconvenience. This fat 
is lodged in a tissue, which pervades all parts of the body, as 



PREPARATION- FOR FAST WORK. 309 

water lodges in a sponge, only there is no apparent commu- 
nication between the cells of the tissue, for the fat lies where 
it is placed, without sinking downward. Fat is the surplus 
of nutrition. When the food is so abundant as to produce 
more nutriment than the system needs, the residue is stored 
away in the form of fat. When the food becomes unequal to 
the demand, the fat is reconverted into blood, or a nutritious 
juice, equal to that derived from the food. But as this fat 
can not be rapidly converted into nutriment, certainly not 
while the horse is hunting or racing, it had better not be 
there. It is a useless weight which the horse must carry, 
and, from its situation, it may embarrass the parts upon 
which motion depends. Besides the fat, there are probably 
some watery or serous juices, quite as useless or injurious 
under exertion. In the stables the superfluous matter is termed 
the waste and sjxire, and the removal of it is termed, drawing 
the horse fine. 

Slow-work horses may carry much superfluous flesh with- 
out any inconvenience. Saddle and carriage horses are not 
supposed to be in good* condition unless they be tolerably 
plump. iVIail-horses can not carry much, and it must be all 
on the outside, not in the belly ; hunters carry less, and ra- 
cers the least of any others. But, for short distances, it is 
not usual to draw the racer very fine. For a four-mile race, 
the horse must be drawn as fine as it possible to make him, 
without exhausting him. It is obvious that the means by 
which superfluous flesh is removed, will also remove that 
which is useful, if persisted in beyond a certain point. When 
carried loo far, the horse becomes unwilling to exert himself, 
dull, feeble, and careless about his food. These symptoms, 
accompanied by emaciation, show that he is overtrained. The 
trainer is proceeding too fast or too far with his operations. 
There is no rule to guide him, but the state of the horse. One 
may be drawn a great deal finer than another. So long as the 
horse goes cheerfully to his work, and to his food, the trainer 
may proceed : he may stop so soon as the horse has wind 
and speed for the distance. 

Superfluous flesh is removed partly by sweating, partly by 
purging, and partly by exertion. ^Vhen all is taken away 
that is likely to incommode the horse, further reduction haz- 
ards the legs when there is no need to hazard them. 

It appears, then, that the trainer may have to lighten the 
carcass, he may have to put flesh on the horse, or to take it 
oflf him ; and he always has to give tone to the muscles, and 



310 STABLE ECONOMl. 

freedom to the wind. Each goes on progressively, and gen- 
erally at the same time ; but the belly is to be reduced to its 
proper size before all the superfluous flesh is taken away ; 
much of tins, if there be much of it, must be removed before 
pov/er and alacrity can be given to the muscular system. 
iSubsequenlly, the horse may be drawn finer, if need be, as 
his wind and speed are under improvement. 

It is probable that training produces some alteration in the 
condition of the blood, the nerves, the blood-vessels, the 
joints, the tendons, and upon every part connected with mo- 
tion. The change in these ought to be as permanent as that 
produced in the muscles ; but I can say nothing more about 
them. 

Agents of Training. — The agents and processes em- 
ployed in preparing the horse for fast- work are, physic, 
sweating, blood-letting, diuretics, alteratives, diaphoretics, cor- 
dials, and exertion. I do not mean that all these are or 
should be in requisition for every horse, or every kind of 
fast-work. All, however are occasionally used, and it is 
proper to consider all. Without knowing what each can do, 
and what each can not do, it can not be judiciously employed. 
I consider their effects in reference to training ; but some of 
them, such as physic and cordials, are often need when the 
horse is already trained and in work ; and to this, or a simi- 
lar circumstance, I allude in two or three places. Though 
not strictly connected with the preparation for work, it is 
right, I think, to say all I have to say about one thing in one 
place. 

Physic. — In the stable this word is entirely confined to 
purgative medicine. 

Uses of. — To a horse going or gone into traininor, physic 
may be wanted for one or more of seven purposes. It will 
diminish the size of the belly ; it will rectify a disordered 
state of the bowels, rousing them from torpor to activity ; it 
will expel worms ; it will produce real or comparative emacia- 
tion ; it will cure plethora ; it will prevent plethora ; and it 
will cure swelled legs. Physic will produce other effects ; 
but I here speak of it only in reference to preparation for 
work, and to the preservation of working condition. 

If the horse be newly Trom grass, one dose will be wanted 
(o empty his bowels. It may be given on the day he is sta- 
bled, if lusty, the dose may be strong. If the horse be 
lean, previously half-starved, or kept on bad food, one, per- 
haps two doses, may be necessary to empty the bowels, ©xre] 



PREPARATION FOR FAST WORK. 311 

worTns, and rouse the digestive apparatus to activity, one OT 
all. In this case, the horse may as well be stabled for eight 
or ten days before his physic be given. It should be mild. 
If the horse be fat, lusty, or as stablemen say, full of humors, 
foul, or foggy, his flesh soft and flabby, he will require a smart 
purgative. If he be very full of flesh, have bad legs, and 
be a good feeder, he may need several doses, each as strong 
as the horse can safely bear it. His safety is never to be 
compromised. There are other means of reducing him, if 
physic, in safe doses, will not do it. He may have the first 
as soon as his bowels are relaxed by bran mashes. The sec- 
ond is not to be given in less than nine clear days. The 
third, if absolutely necessary, is not to be given in less than 
fourteen days after the second sets. 

Should the horse fall lame, or from any other cause require 
to lie idle for several days after his training has considerably 
advanced, physic may be necessary to prevent plethora. This 
state of the system may also be prevented by reducing the 
allowance of food. But racers and hunters can not be starved, 
and whatever kind of food they get it must either produce 
plethora or a large belly. The physic prevents both. Unless 
lameness or swelled legs demand it, the physic need not be 
given till the horse has been several days idle. If he must be 
out of work for more than two or three weeks, a second dose 
may be necessary. But it is only horses of very keen appe- 
tite that need physic to prevent plethora. A delicate horse 
of light carcass, narrow loins, and irritable temper, rarely re- 
quires physic to prevent or to cure plethora, and very seldom 
to remove superfluous flesh. They eat sparingly, and the 
training exercises reduce them more, and faster, than others 
of robust constitution. Between the most delicate and the 
most robust there are many others with whom a middle course 
of treatment must be adopted with regard to physic, and to 
everything else. While those of very strong constitution 
may require a full dose, the very delicate may require none. 
To some a mild or a half-dose is suflicient ; and to others a 
diuretic or an alterative may be useful, when the propriety of 
giving even a mild or a half-dose is doubtful. 

Horses that have undergone a good deal of exertion, wheth- 
er in training or in work, often need physic to refresh them. 
The legs may be slightly swelled, the horse a little stiff', and 
dull. If much emaciated, a mild dose is sufficient ; if lusty 
\he dose may be strong, particularly if the legs be the worse 
V, wear. 



312 STABLE ECONOMY. 

The Effects of Physic vary with the strength of ihe dos«, 
the number of doses, and the condition of the horse. One 
dose, mild or strong, merely empties the bowels ; two, three, 
or a greater number, of mild, perhaps only half-doses, given 
at proper intervals, rouse the digestive organs to more .than or- 
dinary activity, and ,make the lean horse acquire flesh. But 
if the doses be given at intervals too short, the bowels become 
very irritable ; they remain relaxed ; the evacuations are soft, 
too pultaceous, and a draught of cold water, or a little fast 
work, produces actual purgation. In such a case the horse 
becomes excessively lean and weak, and it is often a long time 
ere he recovers. He has had physic too frequently, even 
though each dose were mild. 

One strong dose, besides evacuating the bowels, and light- 
ening the belly, produces emaciation. The purgative drug 
acts first upon the inner surface of the stomach and bowels. 
It irritates this surface, which pours forth a copious secretion 
of water-like fluid, for the purpose of diluting and weakening 
the irritant. The fluid is derived from the blood. When the 
purgative is so strong as to produce very copious secretion, 
the loss which the blood suffers in quantity is soon felt all over 
the body, and an effort is quickly made to supply the place of 
that which has been lost. Vessels, termed aljsorbents, com- 
mence operations upon the fat, and upon other superfluities. 
These undergo a change, and acquire a resemblance to blood ; 
they are collected, and poured into the blood-vessels, and fill 
the place of all the fluid that has been evacuated by the bowels. 
This absorption of superfluities follows every evacuation, 
whether it come from the bowels, the skin, or the kidneys ; 
and I need not again advert to it. The horse becomes leaner 
in order that the blood-vessels may be fuller. The fat is con- 
verted into blood, or a fluid like blood ; but when there is no 
fat to remove, or to spare, the absorbents act upon and remove 
other superfluous fluids and solids, wherever seated. Thus, 
purging, sweating, and other evacuants, take away fatness, 
swelled legs, dropsies, tumors, and so forth. 

Purgation always produces emaciation, more or less evident 
according to the violence of the operation. But when one 
dose succeeds another, before the bowels have quite recovered 
from the effects of the first, there is danger in the process 
Purging proceeds too far ; it may be so severe that weeks 
must elapse ere the horse recover ; it may be such as to leave 
the bowels excessively irritable, easily relaxed : or it may be 
buch as to kill the horse in two or three days. These and 



PREPARATION FOR FAST WCRK. 313 

some other bad effects of physic, arise either from giving too 
much physic at one time, or from giving it too often. 

In hunting and racing, and even in coaching stables, horses 
often die under physic. The blame seldom falls upon the 
medicine, nor upon the man who gives it. The fault is all 
in the horse's constitution ; instead of saying the physic was 
too strong, the man declares the horse was too weak, as if it 
were not possible to make the physic strong or weak accord- 
ing to the state of the horse. When the horse dies, however, 
it is always from an over-dose. He gets too much at once 
or he gets it too often, or that which he gets is made to work 
too strongly, for it is possible to make a small dose produce a>' 
great effect. 

In the stables it is often asserted that physic is dangerous 
when it does not purge the horse. When not strong enough 
to purge the horse, the groom says it goes through the body; 
does not work off, but requires another, to make it work off. 
This is nonsense. I must have given several thousand half- 
doses of physic, not intended to produce any purgation, or . 
very little. If any one of these ever did any ill, a full dose 
would have done a great deal more. But when the groom 
finds his first dose does not purge any, or not so much as he 
desires, he is in a hurry to give a second, which, operating 
with the first, is a pretty sure way to destroy the horse. If 
one dose do not purge, no second should be given till after four 
clear days. 

Physic in full dose always produces temporary debility, 
even before purgation begins. It increases as the purging 
proceeds, and its duration is influenced by many circumstan- 
ces. The horse is dull, sick, and sometimes a little uneasy 
while he is purging. He is generally sick before it begins, 
and while it lasts, but very often he becomes lively and desires 
food so soon as purgation is established. 

After severe purgation the horse is weak for several days ; 
he sweats soon and is easily fatigued. Some recover much 
sooner than others. To the temporary debility there often 
succeeds an immediate increase of energy, greater than the 
horse possessed before, and not altogether dependant upon the 
loss of superfluous flesh, nor the removal of any apparent evil. 
Hence physic is frequently given to racers and to hunters, in 
the middle of their working season, for the purpose as it is 
termed, of refreshing them. 

A Course of Physic consists of three doses, given at inter- 
vals of from 8 to 14 days. Hunters, racers, some carriage, 

27 



S14 STABLE ECONOMV. 

and other horses, get. two courses every year as regularly aa 
the seasons come round ; the racer in autumn after his sum- 
mer running is over, and in spring after he has lain idle all 
winter ; the hunter in spring when he goes to grass or loose- 
house, and in autumn when in preparation for his winter's 
work. Carriage, and suchlike horses, have their two courses, 
simply because spring and autumn are spring and autumn. 
This, in reference to ordinary horses, is going much out of 
fashion. A few venerable adherents to the old school, still 
remain, but their example is not very pernicious ; it is little 
followed. 

* There is no season of the year at which physic is more 
necessary than at another. Horses, indeed, are moulting in 
spring and in autumn ; but so long as they are in health this 
process is not beneficially influenced by physic. With hun- 
ters, the change of food and work alters the case. They may 
need one dose, or three, or more than three, or none. The 
practice of giving a full course to all, without discrimination, 
as if there were some magical property in the number three, 
is too absurd to merit notice. Physic is not one of those 
simples in which quackery deals. Its power to do evil is at 
least as great as its power to do good. 

Composition of Physic. — There are many articles which 
purge the horse ; but, upon almost every occasion, Barbadoes 
aloes is preferred. It is easily given, and the proper dose is 
well known or easily regulated. It purges with more certain- 
ty, and with less danger, than any of the articles which are 
sometimes used in its place. The aloes are powdered, and 
formed into a tough, solid mass, soft enough to swallow. Com- 
mon or Castile soap is generally used for this purpose. One 
of soap, to two of aloes, is about the proportion. Other in- 
gredients are sometimes added ; but, to produce purgation, 
nothing is wanted but the aloes. On hunting and racing es- 
tablishments, the head groom usually compounds the physic 
himself. It may be procured ready made, in any strength, 
from the veterinarian or the druggist. A full dose varies from 
four drachms to nine Yearling colts require about 4 ; ponies 
from 5 to 6 ; saddle, hunting, and draught horses from 7 to 8 ; 
thoroughbreds from 6 to 9. These last when well prepared 
may be purged by six drachms ; but when in work they may 
require nine. Horses of narrow chest and light carcass, re- 
quire less than those of round barrel. 

Giving a Ball. — A dose of medicine, whether purgative 
cordial, diuretic, or any other kind, when given in a solid form, 



PREPARATION FOR FAST WORK. 315 

is termed a hall. It should be soft and about the size and 
shape of a pullet's egg The operator stands before the horse, 
who is generally unbound, and turned with his head out of the 
stall, and a halter upon it. An assistant stands on the left 
side, to steady the horse's head, and keep it from rising out 
of the operator's reach. Sometimes he holds the mouth open, 
and grooms generally need such aid. The operator seizes 
the horse's tongue in his left hand, draws it a little out, and to 
one side, and places his little finger fast upon the under jaw ; 
with the right hand he carries the ball smartly along the roof 
of the mouth, and leaves it at the root of the tongue. The 
mouth is closed, and the head held, till the ball is seen de- 
scending the gullet on the left side. When loath to swallow, 
a little water may be offered, and it will carry the ball before it. 

Some grooms are sad bunglers at this operation. Some 
can not do it at all ; many not without the use of a balling- 
iron, I'.nd none of them can do it handsomely by any means. 
I have seen the tongue severely injured, half torn out of the 
horse's mouth ; and many horses are so much alarmed and in- 
jured by a bad operator, that they become exceedingly troub- 
lesome and always shy about having the mouth or head han- 
dled. 

By keeping the little finger upon the bar of the mouth, the 
tongue can never be injured ; the hand follows every motion 
of the head without being dragged by the tongue. By deliv- 
ering the ball smartly, and without instruments, no pain is pro- 
duced, and no resistance offered. A hot troublesome horse 
should be sent to a veterinary surgeon. The probability is 
that the groom will fail ; he may lodge the ball among the 
teeth, or injure the mouth, and the horse will be pained to no 
purpose, and taught to resist all operations about his head. 

Preparing for Physic. — If a full dose of physic be given 
when the bowels are costive, it is apt to produce colic and in- 
flammation. The medicine is dissolved in the stomach, passes 
into the intestines, and mingles with their fluid and semifluid 
contents ; but, as it travels on, it arrives at a point where the 
contents are solid ; the physic is arrested ; it lies longer there 
than at any previous part of its course ; its continued presence 
produces spasmodic and painful contractions of the bowels to 
force it on. If the intestinal contents be very obstinate, if 
the obstruction be not dissolved, irritation and inflammation 
succeed, and the horse's life is in danger. To obviate this, 
the bowels for one or two days previous are to be gently and 
uniformly relaxed by giving bran mashes, by withholding 



310 STABLE ECONOMY. 

grain, and by stinting the allowance of hay. If the horsa 
can Jake exercise, one day is sufficient to prepare him. A 
the usual feeding hour, he has a bran mash, warm or cold, 
whichever lie likes best. He gets water often, and in full 
measure, as much as he will take, and, if possible, he should 
have walking or trotting exercise, perhaps morning and after- 
ivoon. At night, he receives less than the ordinary allow- 
ance of hay ; and, if a great eater, a muzzle is put upon him, 
that he may not eat the litter after his hay is finished. Few, 
however, need to be stinted in their fodder. Most of them 
may have the ordinary allowance. Those that will not eat 
mashes, nor drink freely, and those that can not take exer- 
cise, are the only horses that need to be kept short of fodder. 
Farly next morning the physic is given on an empty stomach. 
Treatment under Physic. — Half an hour, or directly after 
physic is given, the horse gets a bran* mash ; that eaten, he 
goes to walking exercise, for perhaps an hour ; he is watered 
when he returns. The water should be tepid, warm as the 
horse will take it. He is to get it often, and as much as he 
pleases. It should all be warm, that is, it should not be very 
cold. Some horses, particularly when under physic, refuse 
tepid water. It is often offered too warm. It is better that 
he have it cold, than that he have none. But from the time 
physic is given till it ceases to operate, all the water should 
be warm as the horse will take it, yet not so warm as to make 
him refuse it. During the remainder of this day, the horse 
has a bran mash as often as he is accustomed to get grain. 
Warm are better than cold mashes ; if refused they may be 
given cold ; if both be refused, dry bran may be tried. 
Whether bran be eaten or refused, the horse is to have no 
grain. The hay may be sprinkled with plain, or with salt 
water. Sometimes a little more exercise is given in the af- 
ternoon ; and when the horse is difficult to purge, he is all 
the better of more ".xercise, weather and the legs permitting 
it. In wet weath';r, the horse is not to go out. In cold 
weather, he is to be clothed, both in the stable and at exer- 
cise. The exercise is given at a walking pace, but in cold 
weather part of it may be faster. It should be fast enough to 
keep the horse warm, but not so fast as to heat him. Next 
morning, about twenty-four hours after the physic has been 
given, purging commences. Sometimes it begins sooner. I 
have seen physic operate in ten hours, and I have known 
thirty hours elapse ere the horse was fairly purged. The 
more exercise he takes, and the more water he drinks, the 



PREPARATION FOR FAST WORK. 317 

sooner he is purged. Wheii the dose is strong, exercise mus 
be given with more caution than when it is weak. But too 
much exercise, particularly beyond a walk, will make even a 
weak dose over-purge the horse. 

If not purging freely next morning, when the stable is 
opened, the horse may go out and remain for an hour at a 
walk, with an occasional slow trot. Whenever purgation is 
fairly established the horse should be brought in, and stand in 
the stable till his physic sets, that is, till it ceases to operate. 
Some continue the exercise for a good while after the horse is 
purging ; and when very copious purgation is wanted, or 
when the dose is not very strong, this may be done, the dan- 
ger of carrying the process beyond the horse's strength being 
always remembered. A full dose, with proper preparation, 
and proper treatment, usually continues to operate pretty 
smartly for twelve hours. All this time the horse gets bran 
mashes and water as on the preceding day. At night the 
evacuations should be less fluid, and by next morning they 
ought to be quite natural. After this the horse returns to his 
usual diet. 

Colic. — If the horse appear in pain, pawing the ground, 
looking at his flank, rising and lying, or rolling when down, 
he may have a clyster of warm soapy water, and go to exer- 
cise. This sometimes happens before purgation begins. If 
the pain be very severe, producing perspiration, a cordial ball 
may be given and more clysters, and exercise, only a walk. 

Super purgaLion occurs frequently, either from the dose be- 
ing too strong, or from the horse getting too much exercise. 
If the physic continue to operate so as to threaten evil, it may 
be stopped very readily by giving the horse a few oats or 
beans, one or both. If the horse will not eat, give him a 
cordial ball ; withhold water, and give oatmeal gruel instead ; 
bandage the legs, clothe the body, give a good bed, shut up 
the stable, and do not take the horse out. In half an hour 
after giving the cordial, again try the horse with oats or beans. 
Should these means fail, or should the horse very rapidly be- 
come weak, dejected, losing flesh from the back, crest, and 
thighs, let him have half a pint of mulled port wine, well 
spiced in as much warm water, and add an ounce of lauda- 
num to it. Repeat this dose every four or five hours till 
purging stops. It will always succeed, if the horse be not 
indeed at death's door before the treatment is begun. Bleed- 
ing in such a case destroys the horse. 

Sweating. — Every horse must perspire more or less while 
27* 



318 STABLE ECONOiMY. 

undergoing preparation for fast work ; but in aii racing and 
hunting studs there are some hoi >es that require to oe pur- 
posely sweated. By putting the horse to exertion, under 
heavy clothing, the perspiration is excited, and encouraged to 
flow in much greater profusion than mere exertion would ever 
produce. The object of this is twofold. Sweating removes 
superfluous flesh, and it gives freedom of respiration. The 
one object may be aimed at more than the other ; and the 
process of sweating is, or ought to be, regulated accordingly. 
If the main object be to remove superfluous flesh, the horse 
may be sweated without, or with very little exertion ; if the 
main object be to improve the wind, the horse must have a 
good deal of exertion with less sweating. In both cases the 
horse is drawn finer. The fluid which escapes from the skin 
is derived from the blood. Copious perspiration is soon fol- 
lowed by absorption. The superfluous fluids and solids are 
carried into the circulation, in order to supply the deficiency 
which perspiration has produced. Every sweat, if it be car- 
ried far enough, draws the horse finer, and such is the result, 
whether he get much or little exertion. 

I have never met with a stableman who seemed to under- 
stand the precise effects of sweating. They confound the 
effects of exertion with those of sweating ; they proceed as 
it" they thought the two should be combined. I have more 
than once stated that exercise, judiciously managed, gives 
power and alacrity to the muscular system, and freedom to 
the breathing. I have now to observe that sweating, consid- 
ered by itself, does neither. Copious perspiration can be ex- 
cited with very little exertion ; and, when that is done, the 
sweating merely removes superfluous flesh. It removes fat, 
or other matters, which encumber the muscles and the lungs ; 
but it does not improve the functional powers of either. Ex- 
ertion produces one series of eff'ects, sweating another ; and 
though both are generally combined, there are cases in which 
they may, with advantage, be separated. 

ISweating ivithoiU Exertion. — There is some exertion, but 
so li*/Je that it is not worth considering. The horse is heav- 
ily clothed, saddled, mounted, and taken to the sweating- 
ground ; here he is ridden at a steady, gentle pace, till he be- 
gins to perspire ; so soon as the coat is damp, he is ridden a 
a smart pace to the stable ; the doors and windows are closed ; 
the horse is stalled with his head out, the saddle is removed, 
and more clothing applied. The groom stands by, while an 
assistant holds the horse's head. In a few minutes, from eight 



PHEPARATIOX FOR FAST WORK. 319 

ID ten, the ckin becomes quite wet, perspiration issues from 
every pore and runs down the legs. The horse's breathing 
increases, and is often as quick and laborious as if he had just 
run a race. This arises partly from the heat, and partly from 
exhaustion. The sudden loss of so much fluid produces a 
faintness very similar to that which follows a large bleeding ; 
and, without doubt the efl'ect is greater from the heat accu- 
mulated on the surface. The time the horse is permitted to 
sweat in this manner, must be regulated by the groom. It 
had better be repeated in a few days, than overdone at first. 
After the first sweat the groom will closely observe its effect, 
and he will carry the next further, or not so far, according to 
circumstances. With some the sweating need not stop till 
the perspiration be dropping fast from the belly, running down 
the legs, and passing over the hoofs ; with some others, upon 
whom its effect may not yet be known, it will be time to stop 
when the hair is completely soaked. The groom now and 
then puts his hand under the clothes, and, passing it along the 
skin, observes how much fluid be lodged in the hair. If the 
horse be sufficiently warm when he enters the stable, he /nay 
have to sweat from five to fifteen minutes. Few require more 
than fifteen, and few less than five. 

The sweating having been carried to the desired extent, the 
horse is stripped, the stable boys, usually one, and sometimes 
two on each side, immediately scrape the horse all over; 
they make the skin dry, with as much expedition as possible. 
After scraping the neck, sides, quarters, every place upon 
which the scraper will operate, the legs and head are sponged. 
By means of wisps and rubbers the horse is made quite dry ; 
his standing clothes are put on ; he gets a quart or two of 
tepid water, goes out and gets a short gallop ; is walked about 
till quite cool ; when he is stabled, dressed, clothed, watered, 
fed, and left to repose. The first water is tepid, and no mo*e 
is given than sufficient to make the horse eat. The first food 
requires to be rather laxative, particularly for round barrelled 
horses. The sweating produces costiveness, which is obvi- 
ated by a bran mash : food is given afterward. 

If it be desirable that this sweating produce a very decided 
effect in reducing the horse, his allowance of water for the 
next twenty-four or thirty-six hours should be moderate. He 
will be disposed to drink very copiously, but if much be given, 
it will be rapidly absorbed, and will, in some measure, fill the 
place of that fluid which perspiration has taken away, and 
there will be less stimulus for the absorbents to act upon the 



320 STABLE UCOXOMV. 

fat and other superfluities. The water should be tepid, lui 
when cold it increases the horse's desire for it, and enough to 
make him feed is sullicient. 

It is usual to give the horse a short gallop after his sweat- 
ing, and after he has been dried ; when he is able to take the 
exertion and to sufTer so much exhaustion m one day, the 
practice is unobjectionable ; but sweating, whether with or 
without exertion, does not render a gallop immediately after- 
ward at all necessary. Some gentle exercise, however, is 
often useful, to prevent perspiration from breaking out after 
the horse is dressed. 

I think this mode of sweating, without exertion, is the best 
for lusty horses, with defective legs. It is most necessary at 
the commencement of training, and may be practised two or 
three days after the first dose of physic sets. It removes so 
much of the fat that the horse may afterward proceed to ex- 
ertion, which would have endangered his legs, had it been 
given before the sweating. This sweating merely removes 
fat. It confers no energy upon the muscles, nor capacity 
upon the lungs, beyond that they acquire from having greater 
freedom of action. This kind of sweating is never necessary 
for horses already low in flesh ; and it need never be repeated 
while the legs can safely carry the body. 

Sweating with Ercrfiun. — It is only in racing and in hunt- 
ing stables that horses are put through this process. When 
the training-groom speaks of sweating, he means sweating 
with exertion. The horse is put through his physic, and 
prepared for sweating by several days or weeks of walking 
exercise, varied by an occasional gallop. If the sweating and 
exertion must go together, it is very necessary to prepare the 
horse for the process by some gentler exertion, for it is a very 
severe one. If the horse be very lusty, he goes daily to 
walking exercise. After a time he is put to a short wallop, 
varying in speed and distance according to his age. It should 
at the first two or three trials not exceed half the distance he 
is to go in his sweat ; if he suflier that, without distress, it is 
gradually lengthened till he is able to go nearly, or quite as 
far as the sweating distance. If the trial gallop distress him, 
he returns for a lew^ days to gentler exercise, and the pace 
and distance are increased more gradually. 

Great eaters are muzzled for eight or ten hours before 
they go to the sweating-ground ; some require to be muz- 
zled twelve hours, some six, some not at all : the stomach 
should not be loaded. In the morning, or when the weathei 



PREPARATION FOR FAST WORK. 321 

U cold in the forenoon, the horse is clothed in his sweaters^ 
the quantity varying according to the effect desired. A sott 
porous bhinket lies next the skin ; a breast-piece covers the 
bosom, while the head and neck are enveloped in a hood. 
Over the blanket, one or two, it may be three or four quarter- 
pieces are thrown ; and perhaps another hood may be re- 
quired, the undermost v/anting the earlets. These are tied 
and buckled, with care that no part encumber the action, nor 
abrade the skin. The legs, the eyes, and windpipe, must be 
clear ; the breast-piece must not be drawn so tight as to confine 
the legs or press upon the windpipe. The saddle goes over all. 
The horse is ridden to some convenient ground, hunters to the 
field, racers to the course. If the horse's legs be defective, he 
is mounted by a light weight ; sometimes he is led by a man on 
another horse. In the first or second sweat it may be proper to 
forbear riding ; but in general it is not a good practice to lead 
the horse. He is so little under control that he is very apt 
to be lamed. Arrived at the sweating-ground, the horse is 
usually walked round it, just to let him know it, and to give 
him the use of his legs. The pace increases from a walk to 
a trot or canter, and from that to a gallop. The length and 
speed of the gallop must be regulated by the training-groom. 
Speaking generally, the horse should rarely go at full speed, 
and not above a few hundred yards at a time. When a cer- 
tain distance is not aimed at, the gallop should often end so 
soon as perspiration is fully established, and in no case should 
the horse proceed at the same pace after he appears the least 
distressed. As he improves in condition, he goes faster and 
further before perspiration appears. 

In racing-stables the sweats, almost from the beginning, are 
of a certain length. According to Darvill, " the length for a 
year-old, is two miles ; for a two-year-old, two miles and a 
half; for a three-year-old, three miles, or three and a half; 
and for a four-year-old, four miles. In preparing for a four 
mile race the horse may have to sweat four and a half or 
five miles."* 

Though the coll or horse may have to go a certain dis- 
tance, yet the pace at which he goes must vary with his con- 
dition. At first, the lusty horse especially should go very 
slow ; and when the body is loaded and the legs weak, I 
think the full length should not be tried at first, even though 
the pace be slow. For hunters the pace and the distance 
mrs^ be limited by the state of the legs, and the freedom of 
♦ Darvill on the English Race- Horse.— Vol. II., p. 270. 



322 STABLE ECONOMY. 

the breathing. Excess at the beginning may possibly shorten 
the time of preparation, but it is much more likely to injure 
fhe lungs or the legs. 

When pulled up, the horse is walked to his stable. He 
may stand lor a minute to recover his wind. If the sweating- 
ground be at a considerable distance, the horse is followed 
there by the groom and his assistants, who dry him in the 
field. The horse is placed in a sheltered spot, perhaps be- 
side a hedge ; his clothes are removed, and he is scraped as 
dry as possible ; fresh clothing is put on, and the horse is 
ridden smartly home. Subsequently, the treatment is the 
same as after sweating in the stable. If the stable be near 
the sweating-ground, the horse had better go there at once. 
He is in less danger of catching cold. 

I need hardly repeat that this process has a double effect , 
it improves the condition of those pans upon which muscular 
exertion depends, and it removes superfluous flesh. How far 
it is proper to aim at both objects by the same process, I 
leave to the consideration of those who have experience in 
the practical details of training. I should think it would be 
safer for the legs of a lusty horse to get rid of great part of 
the superfluous flesh with as little exertion as possible ; to 
reduce him in the first place by purging and sweating, leaving 
no more superfluous flesh upon him than what exertion with- 
out clothing would remove. Sometimes the trainer unites 
both modes of sweating. After sending the horse his sweat- 
ing distance, further perspiration is encouraged in the stable. 

The repetition of these sweats must be regulated by the 
effect produced, and by the effect desired. While the robust 
glutton may require a sweat once a week, or thrice a fortnight, 
the delicate abstinent may not need more than one in five or 
six weeks, or perhaps none at all. 

Bleeding, as an operation preparatory to work, is hardly 
evei ..-"^essary. It is customary, however, in some hunting 
and in coaching-studs, upon taking the horse from grass. I be- 
lieve it is nowhere so common as it used to be. It takes the 
flesh off a horse very rapidly, but it produces great debility. 
Perhaps the parts which are absorbed after blood-letting, may 
not be the same parts that sweating and purging remove. It 
may be that the loss of pure blood may be replaced by the 
absorption of solids and fluids more necessary to vigor than 
those solids and fluids of which purging and sweating produce 
the renoval 



PREPARATION FOR FAST \VORK, 323 

Diuretics are those medicines which increase the flow of 
uiitne. They are not of much avail in training. They are 
useful, however, when there is reason to fear plethora, oi 
when the legs swell, either from rest or from excess of food 
or excess of work. Nitre, resin,'' turpentine, soap, and oil of 
juniper, are all diuretics. For a horse of fifteen or sixteen 
hands high a diuretic ball may be composed of — nitre, four 
drachms ; resin, three drachms ; and oil of juniper, twenty 
drops ; with soft soap sufficient to make a ball of the proper 
size. From four to eight drachms of nitre, given in a mash, 
may be sufficient to prevent the plethora which idleness on a 
working-day might produce, and it is useful when work has 
excited a little fever, or swelled the legs. No diuretic is to 
be given within forty-eight hours after, nor before profuse 
sweating. 

Alteratives. — In the stables this term is not applied to 
any particular drug or prescription. Almost every groom has 
a recipe of his own, and the effect, when any is produced, 
must vary according to the articles employed. Taken as a 
class, the alteratives used in training may be regarded as 
gentle evacuants, acting upon the secretions of the skin, the 
bowels, and the kidneys. Nitre, resin, sulphur, balsam of 
sulphur, Ethiop's mineral, cream of tartar, black antimony, 
tartar-emetic, calomel, cinnabar, with a host of gums, spices, 
and herbs, are used individually, or in various combinations. 
Many inert articles are employed. Very often so little is 
given, that neither ill nor good follows, and sometimes a 
dangerous and fatal dose is given through ignorance of its 
powers. 

In former times it seemed to be a rule that the horse 
should swallow a certain quantity of medicine every year, 
whether well or ill, poor or fat ; and among grooms who pre- 
tend to much knowledge, and have a great deal of igno- 
rance, it is still a custom to force drugs upon him, not so 
much to cure as to prevent. If any evil be threatened, or in 
existence, it is very right to take measures to prevent or to 
cure it ; but the people I speak of give drugs without seeing 
any sign that they are wanted. The horse may be as well 
as they desire him to be, and not exposed to any change of 
circumstances or treatment that can make him worse, and yet 
they give some stuffs which they call alteratives. 

In training, good grooms do not employ means of this kind 
without aome reason. The horse may not be altogether right, 
Uis bowels or his skin may be out of order, his legs liable to 



824 STABLE ECONOMY. 

fiwell after work, or frogs to get thrushy in the house. The 
Uorse may have a bad appetite, or his appetite may be too 
good. For these and suchhke matters some medicine which 
will gently stimulate the secretions of a particular organ may 
be very useful. An alterative powder in very common use is 
composed of antimony, nitre, and sulphur, mixed and given in 
the same doses, and with the precautions, which are mention- 
ed in connexion with grooming, to produce a fine coat. When 
the skin is rigid, the hair dr}^ — when there any pimples oi 
itchiness upon it — when there is any tendency to swelled legs 
or thrushes — a few of these powders may be given with 
benefit, a stronger remedy, such as sweating and purging, be- 
ing unnecessary or impracticable. When a bad day keeps a 
hearty eater off his exercise, one or two of them will prevenl 
repletion. 

Sometimes the antimony is given alone. Nimrod recom- 
mends an ounce every day, for eight days together. The 
horse should not hunt nor race till a week after the last dose. 
Cordials. — These medicines are seldom wanted in train- 
ing. Their principal use is to give the horse an appetite. 
There are many spare feeders among fast-working horses. 
They are apt to refuse their food every time they are excited, 
or exhausted by more than usual work. To such, a cordial 
is now and then of some service. There is no need for the 
costly and complicated preparations which are sometimes 
given. 

Take of carraway-seeds 3 oz. 

Anise-seeds, 3 oz. 

Allspice, 3 oz. 

Cloves, 2 oz. 

Gentian root, 4 oz. 

These should all be ground to a fine powder, and beaten 
into a solid mass with treacle or honey. Divide the whole 
into twelve balls. One may be given at anytime when there 
is no fever. When the eye and nostrils are red, the mouth 
and skin hot, they are forbidden. 

Muscular Exertion. — A good deal has been said about 
exertion in other parts of this work, and it is not necessary to 
say much here. In preparing for fast work the rule is to pro- 
ceed from less to more, from a short to a longer distance, from 
a slow to a faster pace, always by small degrees. In the 
first week most of the exercise may be given at a walk. This 
pace has been objected to by Nimrod. He says it injures the 
legs, and produces spavin. He is in error : there is no pace 



PREFAKATION FOR FAST WORK 325 

at which the legs are so safe. When the horse is kept at it 
for several successive hours, he may be fatigued ; but ^he 
fatigue falls upon the muscles, not upon the joints nor the 
tendons. The horse may lie a great deal after much walking 
exercise, but it rarely makes him lame. Cart-horses often 
travel ten hours a day, for months together ; and though all 
their work is performed at a walk, they have no spavin till 
they are overburdened, and not often then. 

Walking exercise empties the bowels — gives the horse 
good use of his limbs — gives him an appetite for food — pro- 
motes the secretion of the lungs, the skin, and the bowels — 
and when much is given, under a good rider, it teaches the 
horse to walk quickly and gracefully. Even at the beginning, 
however, all the exercise need not be given at a walk. The 
horse, whatever be his condition, is always able to take some 
faster exertion. The walk, the trot, the canter, and the gal- 
lop, may alternate one with another, no more of either being 
exacted than the horse can bear without injury. But when 
intended to perform his v/ork at any particular pace, at canter- 
ing for example, he is to get as much of that as it is safe to 
give him. A lady's horse would be ill prepared if most of his 
exertion were a trot. The preparatory exertion should re- 
semble the work as soon and as far as it is safe to give it. 

The slow paces make the horse leg-weary. If he lie more 
than six hours out of the twenty-four, his legs being sound, 
he is getting too much exercise. Fast paces endanger the 
lungs of an untrained horse. The rider should know when 
he has gone as far and as fast as it is safe to go. Existing 
distress is indicated by signs which do not require much ex- 
perience to recognise them. They are described in connexion 
with the accidents of work. The signs which indicate the 
approach of distress are not so well marked, but they are quite 
visible. The first is rapid and short respiration ; the second 
h 3quent protrusion of the muzzle, as if the horse wanted more 
rein ; and the third is a deep, prolonged inspiration, some- 
thing like a sigh, in which the rider feels his legs thrown 
apart by the expansion of the horse's chest. Quickness of 
respiration is a necessary consequence of exertion, and it is a 
symptom of distress only when excessively rapid and short. 
The protrusion of the muzzle shows that the horse is at near- 
ly all he can do. This is not to be mistaken for the pull of a 
horse eager to get away ; he quickens his pace as he gets his 
head free. When distress is coming, the head is often darted 
downward or forward ; and though more rein be given, the 

28 



326 STABLE ECONOMY. 

head still dives, buf the horse goes no faster. He need not, 
in all cases, be pulled up for this ; it may be sufficient to 
slacken the pace for a few hundred yards, to go slower, until 
he recover a little. The deep sight demands immediate re- 
lief ; to continue longer at the same pace, even for no more 
than two hundred yards, is attended with considerable risk. 
The horse may be fairly over-marked. He may proceed a 
short distance, but he ought to be held in if possible, or he 
ought to stand quite still, which is the safer plan, until he re- 
covers his wind. At work, circumstances may demand a 
continuation of the pace, notwithstanding this sign of dis- 
tress ; but, in training, the deep inspiration should stop it at 
once. 

The severest exertion given to the horse in training is that 
termed sweating. A certain distance is aimed at ; but the 
groom generally knows pretty well how the horse will bear it 
before he it is sent to it. He is previously tried in short gal- 
lops, which are lengthened by degrees. Horses usually snort, 
after performing a little smart work ; they clear the nostrils by 
a sudden and forcible expiration. This act does not resemble 
sneezing nor coughing. The nostrils play to and fro as the 
air is expelled, and make a peculiar noise, which is well 
enough expressed by the term snorting. It is quite volunta- 
ry : sneezing and coughing are not. Many horses do it when 
starting, but the groom attends to it particularly after a trial 
gallop. Should the horse clear his nose almost the instant 
he is pulled up, he has wind enough to go farther and faster 
in his next gallop ; should a minute elapse ere he snorts, still 
the pace and distance may be increased, but not much. In 
the next trial, should the horse stand for two minutes without 
snorting, his gallop has been severe enough for his condition, 
and it may have been too much so. He does not snort till 
his breathing is easy ; and the more he is un winded the more 
time he takes to recover. It seems, however, that some 
horses do not snort as soon as they recover freedom of breath- 
ing. 1 have watched one for half an hour, after a severe run, 
without noticing him clear the nostrils ; and I have repeated- 
ly observed that, especially after long-continued exertion, the 
horse does not snort for a good while after his breathing is 
quite tranquil. 

The ground upon which exertion is given is a matter of some 
consequence. A hard stony surface injures the feet and the 
legs, and a fall upon it is a serious affair. Deep ground, that 
in which the foot sinks, demands great exertion to get through 



PREPARATION FOR FAST WORK. 32? 

il, and it hazards the legs, though the rider may have judgment 
enough to save the lungs. Rough irregular ground gives the 
legs so many twists, that a fast pace is very apt to produce a 
sprain. The best is that which resembles a race-course — 
soft, yet firm. 

The kind and degree of exertion must vary with the con- 
dition of the horse ; the mode of giving it must vary a little 
according to his disposition. A lazy horse is generally robust, 
and not much disposed to over-exert himself; he may require 
a good deal of urging to keep him at the pace, and make him 
go the distance. He is apt to stop when not inclined to run. 
If allowed to have his own way a few times at the beginning, 
it becomes a difficult process to train him, and still more dif- 
ficult to work him. On the course he may choose to lose a 
race, and in the field he may fancy he has done^ enough be- 
fore he has well begun. A horse of this kind requires to be 
well mounted. In his training exertion he must be ridden by 
one who has strength to manage him, and judgment enough to 
distinguish between laziness and distress. 

There are many other horses quite different from this kind. 
They are timid, easily agitated, easily injured, and very apt 
to over-exert themselves. The least harsh treatment alarms 
them ; they tremble, the limbs totter, the stride is irregular, 
unsteady ; the horse is so precipitate in his movements that 
he is often lamed or thrown down. Without whip or spur, 
such a horse would run till he died. Even a little extra ex- 
ertion puts him off' his feed. These horses are generally less 
robust than those of phlegmatic temperament : they should 
seldom carry much weight ; yet a thoughtless boy is almost 
sure to abuse such a horse. He ought to be treated with 
great gentleness. Some are least alarmed when ridden alone, 
others when they have companions, which, however, ought 
not to be sluggards, for a timid horse is in terror when he 
sees or hears another punished. In general, severe exertion 
should not always be given on the same ground. x\fter once 
or twice, the horses get alarmed whenever they arrive there, 
and know what is coming. But the same place may be used 
for both the severe and the gentle exertion ; and, by stealing 
slowly away at first, the horse may do his work before he 
knows that he has begun it. The warning of severe exertion 
gives him more alarm than the exertion itself. 

Indeed all horses should start slowly. A gentle pace pre- 
pares the legs, and puts every organ in order for a severe task. 
It gives the horse time to empty his bowels, and to see the 



328 STABLE ECONOMY. 

ftround, and enables the rider to feel lameness should there 
'>e any not previously observed. 

PRESERVATION OF WORKING CONDITION. 

The ultimate object of training, seasoning, or conditioning, 
is to fit the horse for performing his work easily, or at least 
with as little distress as possible. But it is not enough to 
give him condition ; much must be done to preserve it. The 
muscles, the lungs, the blood-vessels, the nerves, the blood, 
every part and every organ connected with motion, undergo 
a change with almost every change in the treatment of the 
horse. The racer, it is said, must run upon the day for which 
he has been trained to run. 1 can not answer for the truth 
of this ; but most likely it is true, if the horse have previous- 
ly received all the training he is able to receive. It is very 
well known that horses which have been trained to extraordi- 
nary exertions rapidly lose the power of performing them, un- 
less some means are taken to preserve it. * 

In the first place, the horse must have constant work. By 
constant, I do not mean daily work. No horse can race or 
hunt every day. A certain period of rest must be granted to 
all. For carriage, cart, and saddle horses, the night's repose 
is, in general, sufiicient to recruit them for next day's labor ; 
but hunters, racers, and many mail and post horses, require a 
longer interval of repose. They may be out only thrice or 
twice a week, and some of them not oftener than once or twice 
a fortnight. Still the work is constant. The time they rest 
is not, or ought not to be, more than sufficient for restoring 
such vigor as the vv^ork demands. 

Ageints that injure Condition. — Condition for work 
may be impaired or entirely destroyed in six ways. Disease, 
continued pain, idleness, excess of work, excess of food, and 
deficiency of food, all operate more or less against working 
condition. There are several other agents by which it may 
be impaired or destroyed, but those only which I mention 
seem to deserve particular notice. 

Disease of a febrile character, or an inflammation in any 
ol' the vital organs, may attack the horse suddenly, and in 
one hour render him unfit for any work. If it were possible 
to remove such a disease on the same day, or at least in two 
or three days, the horse might still retain a portion of the 
condition he previously possessed. But this is not always 
possible. Between the disease and the cure the horse is 



PRESERVATION OF WORKING CONDITION. 32 

much and unavoidably reduced. The debility which a febrile 
disease of itself produces, is often sufficient to destroy work- 
ing condition as effectually as if the horse had never had 
any. Hence racers and hunters are often unfit to come to 
their work at the expected time. Perhaps influenza, or a 
similar malady, invades the stable, and for a time suspends all 
further training, and destroys that which has been given. It 
is the very same when the horse is at work. An attack of 
inflammation, or a fever in the middle of winter, throws the 
hunter out of the field for all the remainder of that season. 
By or before the time he has recovered, and again been 
trained, hunting is over. 

That which is true of the hunter or racer in this respect, is 
not less true of other horses. Their work may not require 
such a long and complicated course of preparation ; but still 
they must have some. That which served at first may serve 
now, provided the disease be completely subdued. All dis- 
eases and fevers are not alike ; while one may wholly destroy 
conditiou, another may only impair it. « 

Pain. — While a horse is in constant pain, he is never 
in excellent condition for work. Very acute pain materially 
impairs his condition in a couple of days. Many horses 
are compelled to work when lame, and it is well known that 
they never carry so much flesh, nor appear so gay, as when 
sound They are seldom indeed lit to perform full work. In 
double harness the sound horse generally has more than his 
share of the draught, and if the lame horse be very willing, 
he soon wears himself out. But horses are often in pain 
without being lame. All kinds of abuse and bad manage- 
ment, consisting in cold, comfortless stables, want of groom- 
ing, neglect of the proper hours for feeding and watering 
want of room to lie, disturbed rest from various causes, impaii 
the horse's condition. Harsh usage from bad grooms often 
destroys the repose and the appetite of nervous horses. Dis- 
comfort and terror are actual pain, and though never very 
acute, yet its constant operation has a sensible influence upon 
th6 condition and appearance of the horse. Grease, and 
sores on the neck, back, or other parts upon which the har- 
ness rides, produce a great deal of pain, both in the stable 
and at work. A large sore on the seat of the collar impairs 
a horse's condition as effectually as want of food. All kinds 
of discomfort, annoyance, terror, or ill-usage, are as truly de- 
bilitating, when long continued, as the pain of a broken limb, 
though much less acute. 

28* 



S30 STABLE ECONOMY. 

Idleness, whether absolute or comparative, is injurious to 
working condition. When the horse obtains more rest than 
his work requires, he is idle. 

Absolute Idleness is that in which the horse suffers close 
contineraent in the stable or loose box. He soon becomes 
weak, fat, short-winded, and stiff. If well fed, he may retain 
health and spirit for two or three months ; but in this time he 
almost loses the use of his legs, and his skin becomes foul 
and itchy. Horses that have been long, perhaps several 
years, in work, with short or no interruptions, become very 
stiff. 

I am unable to say how soon absolute repose will entirely 
destroy working condition. The time must vary with the 
horse's employment, and the manner in which he is fed. 
Those of slow work may suffer confinement for six or eight 
weeks before they become as feeble as idleness can make 
them. If half starved, or fed so poorly that the horse loses 
flesh, less than a month will produce the effect. If fully fed, 
he accumulates a load of fat, which makes him weaker than 
idleness with moderate feeding would make him. Fast-work- 
ers lose their condition much sooner ; one week of superflu- 
ous rest sensibly impairs the condition of a hunter ; he loses 
wind, but he is still able for much work. To destroy his 
condition entirely, he would, in most cases, require about four 
weeks of close confinement, some would need less, and some 
would perhaps retain a portion of their condition nearly eight 
weeks. A great eater degenerates fastest. 

Comparative Idleness is that in which the horse gets exercise, 
or perhaps some work, yet not sufficient to maintain his con- 
dition. The owner may not use him oftener than once or 
twice a fortnight, and he receives exercise from the groom in 
he intervals. Horses kept for work of this kind rarely have 
good grooms to look after them. They are generally in the 
charge of men who seem to think that exercise is of no use 
but to keep the horse in health. A daily walk, with a smart 
trot, will keep the horse in condition for moderate work ; but 
if the owner ride or drive fast and far, and at irregular inter- 
vals, as much exercise as keeps the horse in health is not 
suflficient. Every second, third, or fourth day, the exercise 
should resemble the work. The horse should go nearly oi 
quite as far and as fast as the owner usually rides him. It 
may be too much to do every day, or every second day ; but 
keeping always within safe bounds, the horse should have 
work, or exercise equal to his work, at regular intervals. 



PRE.SF.RVATION OF WORKING CONDITION. 33 

Many people work a horse on Sunday, as if they thought six 
days ot' idleness should enable him to perform a week's work 
in one day. When the horse has much to do on Sunday, he 
should in general do nearly as much on Wednesday, and on 
other days he may have walking exercise. 

Excess of Work. — A single day of severe exertion may 
destroy the horse's working condition. His lungs may be 
injured, a disease may succeed, and require many days to 
cure it. Between the disease, the cure, and the idleness, the 
condition may be wholly gone before anything can be done to 
keep or to restore it. This is termed over-marking, and it is 
not the excess I here mean. 

That to which I allude is not the excess of one day. The 
horse may perform the work for several days, or even weeks, 
quite well, yet it may be too much to be done long. One of 
two things will happen, or both may occur together. The 
horse will lose flesh, and become weak, or his legs will fail, 
and he will become lame. 

Emaciation, the loss of flesh from excess of work, is easily 
explained. The work is such as to consume more nutriment 
than the digestive apparatus can supply. The horse may 
have as much of the best food as he will eat, yet the power 
of the stomach and bowels is limited. They can furnish only 
a certain quantity of nutriment. When the work demands 
more, it is procured from other parts of the body. The fat, 
if there be any, is consumed first ; it is converted into blood ; 
a little is taken away every day ; by-and-by it is all removed, 
and the horse is lean. Should the demand still continue, 
other parts are absorbed ; the cellular tissue, and ultimately 
every particle of matter, which the system can spare, is con- 
verted into nutriment. When the whole is consumed, the 
f upply must be wholly furnished by the digestive apparatus, 
and if that were unable to meet the demand at first, it is still 
less able now. By this time the horse is very lean, his 
bones stare through the skin ; he is spiritless, stiff*, and slow, 
and his belly is tucked up almost to the backbone. The 
horse becomes unfit for work. Rest and good food soon re- 
store him, but if work be still exacted, the solids and fluids 
change, the system falls into decay, and a disease, such as a 
common cold, or the influenza, from which a horse in ordi- 
nary condition would soon recover, produces in this worn- 
out animal glanders or farcy. Work is sometimes exacted 
till the horse is ruined, but the owner rarely escapes, foi 
when glanders once appears it seldom slays where it begins. 



332 SIABLE ECONOMY. 

General Stiffness usually accompanies emaciation. When 
first taken from the stable, the horse seems to be stiff all 
over ; he obtains greater freedom of motion after he is tolera- 
bly well warmed by exertion ; but he never has great speed. 
All old coaching horses are in this state, and all those, 
whether young or old, who have a deal of hard work, soon 
become more or less stiff. In racers and hunters, the extent 
of stride is perceptibly contracted toward the close of their 
working season. They are termed stale, and require some 
repose, and green food or carrots, and sometimes a little 
physic, to refresh them.. 

The Legs are often so ill formed, that they fail without any 
excess of work. But fast paces, long journeys, and heavy 
weights, ruin the very best. A single journey may produce 
lameness; it may gi^'e the horse spavin or grogginess : or 
some other lameness may be the result of one day's work. 
But this is more than excess. The horse may have to per- 
form it twice or thrice in his lifetime, but if it be such as to 
make him lame, it is too much to form regular work. The 
excess to which I allude does not produce lameness till after 
the horse has done the journey several times in succession. 
When two or three become lame, it is high time to make ar- 
rangements for preventing more. The distance may be 
shortened, the draught or weight lightened, or the place re- 
tarded. 

The legs often show that the work is in excess, though the 
horse may not be lame. The fore-legs suffer most, but the 
hind are not exempt. Where there is much up-hill work, or 
much galloping, the hind fail as often as the fore. The pas- 
terns become straight ; and, in extreme cases, the fetlock- 
joint is bent forward ; this is termed knuckling over. At a 
later period the knees bend forward. The whole leg is 
crooked, deformed, tottering. Besides these the legs become 
tumid, round, puffy. There is a general tumefaction, and the 
egs are said to be gourdy, fleshy, or stale. The deformity 
produces unsteadiness of action ; the limbs tremble after the 
least exertion, and the horse is easily thrown to the ground. 
The tumefaction produces a tendency to cracked heels and to 
grease. 

Very often the back tendons suffer enlargement, which, in 
some cases, depends entirely upon accumulation of the fluid 
by which they are lubricated, not upon any enlargement of 
the tendons themselves. The hock and fetlock joints are al- 
w^ays large and puffy. These enlargements are termed wind 



PRESERVATION OF WORKING CONDITION. 333 

galls, bog-spavin, and thorough-pin. They are little bags 
containing joint-oil which prevents friction. Rapid and .ast- 
ing exertion increases the quantity of this fluid, and dilates 
the bags which contaia it. 

The legs of racers and hunters are always more or less the 
worse of wear toward the close of their working season. If 
these horses were wanted all the year through, the legs would 
demand rest, though the body might not. Hunters rest all 
summer, racers all winter, and during repose, their legs re- 
gain their original integrity and form. 

The legs of horses are very differently constructed. Some 
are so well formed that they suffer a great deal before they 
begin to fail ; others are so defective that they will not stand 
hard work. With racers and hunters much may be done to 
save them ; fermentations, hand-rubbing, and bandages, are 
of much service after severe work ; but they require too 
much time and attendance to be employed for inferior horses. 
In mail and ^".oaching studs, horses with bad legs may be put 
to short stages ; and in many cases it may be proper to let 
them go to spring grass for four or six weeks ; there the legs 
may be restored so far as to preserve the horse for a year 
longer. 

It is the fashion at present to dispense with breech-bands 
or breeching for stage-coach horses ; and where the road is 
pretty level, or the coach light, they are of little use. But it 
seems to me they have been too generally discarded. With- 
out breech-bands the whole weight of the ccach in going 
down hill is thrown upon the neck, and from the neck to the 
fore legs. Hilly ground is destructive to both fore and hind 
legs ; but the fore ones always fail first. I think breech- 
bands on the horses that have the worst stage, would make 
♦he fore legs last longer. 

The Feet are often injured by excess of work. The fore 
feet are liable to one disease which has been denominated, 
with as much truth as energy, " the curse of good horses," I 
mean the navicular disease, or grogginess. It is very common 
among all kinds of fast- workers. Bad shoeing, neglect of 
stable cares to preserve the feet, hard roads, and various other 
agents, have been blamed for producing it. But it seems tc 
me the most common and the most certain cause has been too 
little considered. Long journeys, at a fast pace, will make 
almost any horse groggy. Bad shoeing and want of stable 
care both help, but, I am nearly sure, they alone never produce 
grogginess. The horse must go far and fast ; if his feet be 



334 STABLE ECONOMY. 

neglected, or shoeing bad, a slower pace and a shorter dis- 
tance will do the mischief ; but I believe there is nothing in 
the world will make a horse groggy, except driving him far 
enough and fast enough to alter the synovial secretion of the 
navicular joint. Cart-horses are quite exempt ; horses work- 
uig in the omnibuses about Glasgow, always on the stones, 
and often at ten miles an hour, but never more than a mile 
without stopping, are nearly exempt. The horses most liable 
are those which work long and fast stages. 

I can not pursue the subject in this treatise. I mention it 
as one of the evils of excessive work. When many horses 
become groggy, the stages should be shortened, divided into 
two, even though no more than one hour can be allowed for 
rest between them. Founder is sometimes, though very rare- 
ly, the result of excessive work ; but in most, if not in every 
case, there is also some error in feeding or watering in opera- 
tion at same time. 

Though I have spoken individually of the evils arising from 
excess of work, it must not be supposed that they always exist 
separately. One horse may merely lose flesh ; another may 
become stiff; a third stale on his legs ; and a fourth may suf- 
fer only in his feet. But it most frequently happens that the 
horse is affected in more ways than one. In general, emacia- 
tion, stiffness, and staleness of the legs, go together. 

For some kinds of work the horse can be kept in condition 
all his life. But the fastest kinds can be nerformed only for 
a small portion of a lifetime. Coaching-horses are worn out 
in from three to four years. I have known some last upward 
of ten, but these v/ere exceptions. Hunters and racers would 
be done much sooner, were their work as uninterrupted. The 
legs decay, however good the body may remain, and long be- 
fore old age arrives. If it be desirable- as in the case of 
hunters it is, to preserve the horse till age impairs his powers, 
he must be put out of work always before his legs are irrepar- 
ably injured, and kept idle, or at some easier work, till they 
regain primitive soundness. 

Before the close of their working season, hunters and racers 
are often sensibly impaired. Some are stiff, some lean, some 
gourdy-legged. Should any of these signs appear long be- 
fore the end of the season, it may be necessary to rest the 
horse for a while in order to refresh him. Carrots or green 
food may be given with the grain. Physics or alteratives may 
oe useful, and directions are given concerning them in another 
section. Exercise should not be neglected, nor given in ex 



TREATMENT AFTER WORK. 335 

cess. From three to six weeks may be required to refresh 
the horse, but the time varies so much, according to the 
horse's condition, that it is not possible to state any precise 
period. 

Excess of Food. — Horses that are doing full work, as 
much as they are able to do, can hardly have an excess of 
food. Some kinds of work, such as that given to mail and 
stage horses, require an unlimited allowance. If the horse 
have good legs, or legs equal to the pace, distance, and weight, 
he can not perform all the work of which he is capable, with- 
out as much grain as he will eat. But there are some kinds 
of work, such as racing and hunting, and especially steeple- 
chasing, which are so injurious to the legs, that long intervals 
of repose are necessary ; sometimes eight to ten days must 
elapse before the horse can repeat his task. In this time a. 
great eater will become fat and short-winded upon a full al- 
lowance of food, or his skin will itch and rise in pimples. Itl 
such a case, bran-mashes, or a few carrots, should be given 
'low and then instead of grain. Alteratives, diuretics, and 
such like evacuants may be given ; but, I think, more economy 
in the distribution of food would render them less necessary. 

Deficiency of Food impairs condition much sooner and 
more certainly than excess. It produces emaciation and stiff- 
ness, dulness and weakness, in less time than excess of work. 
The food is deficient when the horse loses flesh, and gets less 
grain than he would eat. The work is in excess when he 
loses flesh, and has all the grain he will consume. 



TREATMENT AFTER WORK. 

This section treats of the cares and appliances usually or 
sometimes b%>stowed upon a horse after severe work. Some 
of them refer to ordinary work. All horses require water, 
food, cleaning, and bedding, at the end of their exertions ; but 
some, in addition, have need of cordials, fomentations, ban- 
dages, and nursing. 

Cleaning. — If possible, the horse is to arrive at his stable 
cool and dry ; when not possible, the first thing to be done is 
to make him so, and the quicker the better. It is not of im- 
portance to clean him thoroughly. When made quite dry and 
cool, further grooming may be put oflftill the horse has rested 
a few hours, or till next morning, if he be much fatigued. 
The feet being examined, clothes applied, water and grain 



336 STABLE ECONOMY. 

given, the horse is bedded, and left to repose. Inferior horses 
after ordinary work receive no other care. 

When the horse comes in very hot, he is, weather permit- 
ting, to be walked a?bout till cool ; he is not to enter a warm 
stable nntil the breathing be perfectly quiet and the skin dry ; 
a close stable makes him faint and sick, and encourages fur- 
ther perspiration. When he comes in wet he is to be dried 
immediately, or kept in motion till the skin dry of itself. 
When very tired, the sooner he is stabled the better, but still 
he must not be left at rest till dry and cool. When he has 
been long out, encourage him to urinate before dressing him. 

Fomenting the Legs. — I believe this is a useful operation 
after a day of extraordinary exertion. It subdues or prevents 
the tumefaction of the joints and sinews, to which the legs 
of many horses are very liable. The water should be as hot 
as the hand can bear it, yet not hot enough to pain the horse. 
Clean water is the best fomentation ; salt, sugar of lead, 
Goulard's extract, soap, and herbs, are sometimes added ; they 
are perfectly useless, and in large quantities some of them fire 
the skin. The legs need not be bathed higher than the knee 
and the hock-joints. The water is applied with a sponge, 
and if possible, there should be a man to each leg. If there 
be but one groom, the operation is tedious to a tired horse, 
and wet warm bandages may be employed as a substitute for 
fomentation. That the horse may lie dry, he should be 
fomented out of the stall, or loose-box, whichever be destined 
for his repose. If he flinch as the sponge passes over a par- 
ticular place, that part is to be examined, lest a thorn be 
lodged in it. After the mud is washed off", the hand may be 
drawn gently up and down the legs in search of thorns. 

The fomentation need not be continued above ten minutes. 
When finished, the legs are to be enveloped in flannel bandages, 
dry if the legs be sound, or wet if there be any sign of injury 
or inflammation. 

Leg Bandages are strips of flannel four to six yards in 
length, and four or more inches in breadth ; each has strings 
at one end for tying. It is coiled up with the strings in the 
centre ; the groom unrolls it as he wraps up the leg. Two 
coils run completely round the pastern, close to the hoof, and 
the rest is wound round the leg in a spiral form, each coil 
overlapping another until the leg is bound up to the knee or 
the hock, where the bandage is secured. Few horses will 
attempt to he when the bandage is carried over these joints. 
Care must be taken that the bandage presses equally, and not 



TREATMENT AFTER WORK. 337 

tightly ; the strings should admit the finger after tying. The 
handages, one to each leg, are used sometimes wet and some- 
times dry. 

Dry Bandages are necessary only when the legs are wet or 
cold, orhkely to become cold ; they confine heat, and absorb 
moisture. After they have done all they are wanted to do, 
they should be removed, and the legs hand-rubbed for a little. 
Some horses will not lie with their legs bandaged. They 
must be taken off before night, or they should not be put on ; 
the legs may be dried and warmed by hand-rubbing. A dry 
bandage should always be quite loose, just tight enough 
to keep its place. When firmly applied, it does not retain 
the heat so well. 

Wet Bandages are of more service than stableman are 
generally aware of. They retain heat, reduce and prevent 
swelling, and abate inflammation. When the horse is subject 
to swelled legs, to tenderness and tumefaction about the joints 
and sinews after severe work, warm wet bandages help greatly 
to preserve the legs. If fomentation can be well and quickly- 
performed, it may ; if not, it is better not attempted. The 
bandage may be dipped in warm water, and applied rather 
more firmly than a dry bandage. The heat and the moisture 
operating together, produce gentle and continued perspiration. 
The effect is nearly, or quite the same as if the legs were in 
a warm poultice. If the horse will lie with them, the bandages 
may be kept on all night ; but they must be kept wet. The 
legs may be dipped into a pail of warm water at shutting up 
the stables ; or the bandages may be so long and thick that 
they will remain moist till it is time to remove them. A dry 
bandage to an inflamed leg does more harm than good. It re- 
tains the heat without producing the perspiration which abates 
inflammation. The hind-legs rarely need wet bandages. . 

Water. — The tired horse is usually disposed to drink more 
at one time than is good for him. The water should be tepid, 
and given every fifteen or twenty minutes, till the horse re- 
fuses more. He may have a couple of quarts whenever his 
work is done. Gruel or hay-tea may be given when the horse 
needs nourishment, and refuses solid food. He will not take 
either till it is nearly cold. 

Food. — Fatigue destroys the appetite of some horses very 
readily. Carrots, ooiled barley, malt, or any article which 
the horse is known to prefer, may be offered in small quantity. 
After a severe day, the food should be rather laxative, for hard 

29 



338 STABLE ECONOMF. 

work constipates the bowels, which is easily obviated by a 
bran-mash. 

Grooms are often in too great a hurry. Though the horse 
should not eat till he has rested a few hours, he is none the 
worse. There is no occasion for forcing food upon him, and 
it is not always necessary to excite the appetite by cordials. 
Gruel is very good, if the horse will take it himself ; but it is 
absurd to pour it into a stomach which can not digest it. The 
very act of forcing it on him is particularly distressing, and it 
should never be done. I know of no state of the body in 
which it is ever proper to force food upon the horse. 

Cordials are sometimes useful after great exhaustion 
Robust good-tempered horses rarely need them. Timid ner- 
vous horses are a good deal agitated by fast work, and in 
general they remain in a state of fretful excitement for a good 
while after the work is over. These are much the better of 
a cordial : a ball, not a drink. Draughts are annoying and 
disgusting to the horse, though perhaps very palatable to the 
groom. One ball is sufficient ; it may be given half-an-houi 
after the horse is dressed. Very often the horse needs noth- 
ing but water to give him an appetite. 

Bedding. — A loose box is the best place for a tired horse. 
It gives him choice of position, and he assumes that which is 
most favorable to repose. It should be deeply littered over 
all its length and breadth. When a stall must serve, it should 
be the widest, the litter deep, and carried back farther than 
usual. 

Pulling off the Shoes. — There are few cases in which 
it is proper to remove the shoes, merely because the horse has 
been doing much work. It is not an uncommon practice ; 
but I believe it has had its origin in a theory or supposition 
that the shoes act in much the same manner upon the horse's 
feet that boots act upon those of his rider. The shoes of the 
horse produce no general compression and no part is relieved 
from painful pressure by removing them. If the feet be dis- 
posed to founder, the soles flat, the shoes may be taken off, 
but in any other case it is needless. A cold moist stopping 
is of more use. 

The Day after Work should seldom be a day of absolute 
repose. If the horse be in a loose box, he will have little oc- 
casion for exercise, yet a walk of ten or tifteen minutes will 
do him good. He may be a little stiff, his appetite may be 
defective, or his legs may be swollen. Walking exercise, 
particularly in company with a steady companion, is a gentle 



ACCIDENTS OF WORK. 339 

and safe stimulant. It dissipates dejection and weariness, 
fines the legs, excites an appetite, empties the bowels, and in 
some degree removes stiffness. From five to fifteen minutes, 
morning and afternoon, may be sufficient. The exercise- 
ground should be soft, the horse lightly clothed, and both body 
and legs should be kept dry as possible. Unless the bowels 
be confined, the ordinary food may be given ; carrots or bran- 
mashes will obviate costiveness. Oatmeal gruel, well made, 
but quite weak, is the best drink, should the horse crave much 
water. 

If the horse be slightly fevered, his eye red, mouth and skin 
hot, urine high-colored, bowels out of order, and appetite bad, 
one or two alteratives may be given. In this case the diet 
should consist entirely of bran-mashes, carrots, or green food ; 
and these will give place to the ordinary feeding, by degrees^ 
as the horse regains his appetite. If he stand at night, with- 
out lying down to rest as usual, the lungs are injured, and the 
I'^eterinarian should be called immediately. 

Subsequently, as the horse recovers, his exercise is in- 
creased ; and if his work be such as to require four or five 
olank days, he may have a gallop, or a gentle sweat on the 
last. 

ACCIDENTS OF WORK. 

The accidents of work are very numerous. A full descrip- 
tion of each would form a volume as large as this. I select 
a few from those which occur most frequently, from those 
which may be prevented, and from those which require im- 
mediate attention. 

Cutting. — Young horses, timid horses, and those having 
ill-made legs, are apt to strike the fetlock-joint with the oppo- 
•ite foot. This is termed cutting, brushing, or interfering. 

Fig. 18. 




340 



STABLE ECONOMY. 



In almost every case, except when the horse is tired, this can 
be prevented by the shoeing-smith, who may apply a shoe 
like that represented in Fig. 18. When he can not, or when 
the fetlock is much swollen, a boot must be worn something 
like that represented in Fig. 19. It is nothing but a piece of 
cloth tied over the middle, with its upper half folded over the 
string. A leather flap is in use ; it covers only the inside of 
the joint, and is secured by a single strap. It is apt to turn 
round and leave the part undefended. 

Speedy cut is an injury of the same kind, and is produced 
in the same way, only the leg is struck .. 'gher up, and when 
the horse is going fast. The only way of preventing it is to 
cover the leg with a boot (see Fig. 19), A B or to apply a 

Fig. 19. 




pad to the foot which strikes the leg. The boot does best, 
when on, the knee-joint must be quite free, and the tendons 
must have no inconvenient pressure. The pad will not sit on 
every foot, but it sometimes answers very well. It should be 
stuffed with horse-hair, and made to go quite round the foot. 
It is secured by a single strap and buckle, and is about an 
inch and a half broad. 

Over-reaching. — The heel and the pastern are sometimes 
struck by the hind-foot. Most frequently it is the heel, just 
where the hoof joins the skin. It happens only in fast paces 
in leaping, or galloping over deep ground. Horses with short 
backs are most liable. A semicircular wound is made ; the 
skin is raised like a flap, which folds backward and down* 



ACCIDENTS OF WORK. 



311 



ward, never upward nor forward. People imagine that thi 
IS done by the toe of the shoe, but the shape of the wound 
shows that it is inflicted by the edge on the inner circumfer- 
ence of the shoe : it is done as the hind-foot is drawn back. 
Sometimes a portion of the skin is scooped quite out. 

This accident is easily prevented, by cutting away the edge 
of the shoe, as shown in Fig. 20, A. But the proper shoe 

Fig. 20. 




for the hind-foot of hunters ought to present a half-round sur- 
face to the ground, similar to that shown in Fig. 21. 

B, represents the ordinary shoe, having the sharp edge, 
which cuts the heel in over-reaching. 

There is a kind of over-reaching, which is termed forging 
or clicking. In trotting, the horse strikes the middle of the 
fore-shoe with the toe of the hind one. The noise can be 
prevented by allowing the toe of the hoof to overhang the 
shoe a little, but there are no means of preventing the blow 



BtA2 8TABLB ECONOMY. 

Figr. 21. 




unless the horse can be made to alter his pace, by Keeping his 
head well up. 

The fore-shoes of clicking horses should be short and hav- 
ing the web broad. When too long, they are apt to be torn 
off; when too narrow, the hind-foot bruises the sole of the 
fore one, and may be locked fast between the breaches of the 
shoe. Hunters, however, must have the web narrow, for a 
broad shoe makes them slip on tough ground. It must be so 
narrow that it will not catch the hind foot. 

Losing a Shoe. — When a shoe gets loose on the road, pro- 
ceed cautiously to the nearest forge. A fast pace will throw 
the shoe, and break the foot. Should the shoe be hanging off, 
or twisted across the foot, pull it away entirely, and remove 
any loose nails that might run into the foot. The loss of a 
shoe in the hunting field is a sad misfortune. If the ground 
be soft, and the foot strong, the horse may proceed till the 
sport be finished, when he may be led home, or to the nearest 
forge. A hind foot receives less injury than a fore one. 
Sportsmen sometimes carry a shoe, and set of nails, along 
with them. The shoe is jointed, that it may fit any of the feet. 
Mr. W. Percivall has invented a sandal, which promises to be 
of great use. It is secured by straps, and the rider can ad- 
just it himself. It saves the foot until a shoe can be applied ; 
and, over some pieces of ground, it will carry the horse even 
at a hunting pace. Mr Percivall has made it patent. It may 
be procured by sending a paper outline of the horse's foot, to 
Tate, saddler. Park Street, Grosvenor Square ; or to Townes 
and Son, 141, Cheapside, London. Its cost is half a guinea. 
The following figures (Fig. 22) represent it on and off the foot. 

Falling. — Horses sometimes fall on the side, sometimes 
on the head, and sometimes back upon the haunches ; but 
most frequently they fall upon their knees. A saddle-horse 



ACCIDENTS OF WORK. 

Fig. 22. 



313 




seldom needs assistance to rise ; but if old, stiff, exhausted, 
lying in an awkward position or upon ice, he may not be able 
to get up without help, and the rider should know how to af- 
ford it. Almost every horse rises with his head first ; he be- 
gins by throwing out his forelegs, one by one ; he can not 
rise when they are below him ; he elevates the head, and then, 
by a sudden and single effort, he springs to his feet. If assis- 
tance be needful, it must be given by supporting the head. 
Do not stand before the horse, nor on the side to which his 
feet are lying. Go to the back, seize the reins close to the 
mouth ; when the horse elevates his head, endeavor to keep 
it up, to render it a fixed point from which the muscles may 
act in raising the body ; while one hand is supporting the head, 
place the other on the withers or shoulder, and push the horse 
off you, so as to set the body over the legs. It requires a 



311 STABLE ECONOMV. 

good (leal of practice to become expert in giving this assis 
tance. Some are so awkward about it that they will have the 
horse up and down half-a-dozen times, and bruised all over, 
before they get him on his feet. 

In harness, the horse is seldom able to rise till liberated 
from the shafts or traces. About towns the moment a horse 
falls, he is surrounded by a crowd of officious assistants, ev- 
ery one giving orders, or doing some mischief. They are 
very fond of cutting the liarness ; and if the owner do not look 
sharp, he will have traces, pole-piece, and back-bands, cut to 
shreds before he hears a word about it. The first thing to be 
aone is to secure the horse's head. Keep it down that he 
may not injure himself, or do further mischief, in fruitless at- 
tempts to rise. The next thing to be done, is to unbuckle 
such parts of the harness as connect the horse with the draught. 
In double harness, it is generally sufficient to unbuckle the 
neck strap, which connects pole-piece and traces to the collar. 
By backing the carriage a few yards, the horse gets room to 
rise. When lying with his feet inward, his companion should 
be removed. If the harness do not come separate upon loos- 
ing the neck strap, the traces must be taken off the horse, or 
off the bar. In shafts, the carriage must be put back before 
the head is freed ; but if there is no weight on the bacjv, and 
the legs are not entangled, it is enough to support the head, 
without unyoking the horse. After the horse is up, steady 
him for a few moments till he collect himself. Examine his 
^nees, legs, haunches, head, and mouth ; see that none of the 
shoes are torn off. If not disabled, let him start at a gentle 
pace ; some part may be so painful or benumbed, that a hur- 
ried start will produce a second fall. 

The Causes of Falling are very numerous. Bad riding", 
bad shoeing, or neglect of shoeing ; bad roads, over-reaching, 
cutting, an ill-fitting or ill-placed saddle ; a stone in the foot, and 
weakness of the horse, are among the most common causes. 
A bad rider may permit a horse to fall, merely by neglecting 
to support his head ; he may hurry over roads hardly fit for a 
walking-pace ; he may lean too much forward ; or he may 
ride the horse till he can scarcely put one foot before another. 
Bad shoeing may throw a horse down. By neglecting to 
shoe at proper times, or to change the mode of shoeing when 
the work changes, the feet become long, the shoes defective, 
or perhaps the horse goes to the field with shoes made for the 
road. There are various other causes which I have no room 



ACCIDENTS OF WORK. 345 

to describe. Indeed they all belong to horsemanship more 
than to stable economy. 

The horse is sometimes severely injured. Mere abrasions 
of the head, the haunch, and other parts, need no notice. 
Among the most common and severe injuries, are those of the 
knee, the head, the neck, the back, and the legs. 

Broken Knees. — The skin may be only ruffled, or the knee 
may be bared to the bones ; in both cases, and in all degrees 
between these, the slightest and the severest injuries, the 
horse is said to get a broken knee. The name does not, as 
a stranger might suppose, indicate fracture of the bones. 

If the wound be superficial, the horse may finish his work. 
A handkerchief may be bound loosely round it merely to ex- 
clude air and, dirt; but in general no treatment is required till 
the horse reach home. If the wound be deep, whether large 
or small externally, it will be prudent to ascertain whether or 
not it be fairly into the joint, which is little more than half an 
inch from the surface. Clear away the sand and mud, bend 
the knee, and examine the interior of the wound. It is some- 
times so large that the bare bones can be seen at the bottom 
of it. When the external orifice is small, and the depth not 
apparent, the oozing of a whitish glary matter, resembling the 
white of eggs, is evidence that the joint is open. This fluid 
is joint oil, and is forced out by bending the knee. If it be 
clear that the joint has been penetrated, apply a bandage, and 
take the horse to the nearest stable, and put him immediately 
under the care of a veterinarian. Apply a poultice till he 
arrives. If the horse have to go above a mile or two aftei 
this accident, the oil will escape, the bones will rub one upon 
another, intense inflammation will succeed in the course of 
twenty hours, and ultimately the horse either dies of fever, 
or he becomes useless. The joint stiffens. 

It is not always easy to be sure whether the joint is or is 
not penetrated. The wound is often in such a state with 
sand and mud, that the first examination can not be conclu- 
sive. When there is any doubt, the horse should, if possible, 
have the benefit of it. The danger increases with the dis- 
tance and the pace. If he must go, all that can be done in 
precaution, is to apply a bandage. A neckcloth or handker- 
t*hief will do. 

When valuable horses are travelling, a kind of cap is some- 
times applied to each knee. It prevents injury, should the 
horse fall. It is usually made of cloth, having a circular 
piece of leather, and a little stuffing opposite the joint. Knee- 



346 STABLE ECONOMY. 

caps made entirely of Indian rubber have been introduced^ 
but it is said that they shift more than those of cloth. They 
are too heavy. 

Injuries of the Back most frequently happen in the 
field or upon ice. The hind feet slip backward, sometimes 
in leaping across a ditch, and sometimes going up a steep 
hill. The violent effort which the horse makes to recover 
his footing seems to be the cause of the injury. The joints 
of the loins are put upon the stretch ; the bones are partly 
separated, sometimes completely, and sometimes broken. A 
sprain of the loins may be so slight as to attract no attention 
till the horse is cool. When the bones are displaced, the 
horse stands stock still, he refuses to proceed ; when urged, 
he staggers, perhaps falls. When the spinal marrow is in- 
volved, the hind legs are partially or completely paralysed. 
The horse has little control over them, or he has none. If 
he can be raised, he may be taken to stable, assisted by a 
man at each haunch to steady him. If, after raising him, it 
be evident that the horse can not stand, if he have no power 
whatever over his hind legs, he will never recover. If he 
start to his fore feet, and rest on his hip or haunch, and can 
not get further, he may be lifted by the tail. 

Injury of the back is seldom apparent from external ex- 
amination. The bones may be broken and crushed upon the 
spinal marrow, without presenting any external mark of dis- 
placement. The extent of mischief is known by the extent 
and degree of the palsy. Sometimes the paralytic limbs are 
likewise insensible, and sometimes there is a twist of the 
back, slight, but evident. 

Injuries of the Neck are produced by falls upon the 
head. They occur most frequently in hunting, and in steeple- 
chasing. When there i* merely displacement of the bones, 
the neck is twisted and the head carried to one side ; some- 
times it droops almost to the ground, and the horse can not 
raise it. In either case he may recover, although it is com- 
mon for the neck to remain permanently distorted. 

When the neck is fairly broken, the spinal marrow crushed 
or strained, the horse is instantly deprived of motion and 
sensation in every part behind the seat of injury. When the 
fracture is close to the head, the horse dies instantly, and 
without the slightest struggle. If he fall with the head under 
him, there it remains ; he is dead before he can make an 
effort to extricate it. When the fracture is farther back, 
nearer the middle of the neck, the horse lives for a while 



ACCIDENTS OF WORK. 341 

He breathes, sees, hears, swallows, and his blood flows as 
usual. But the limbs, before and behind, are perfectly motion- 
less and insensible. The horse may be pulled about, rolled 
over and over, pinched, pricked, and cut, as if he were quite 
dead. The head, part of the neck, and some of the internal 
organs alone retain vitality. Looking at the neck as it lies, 
depression or elevation is sometimes apparent ; when not, 
the seat of injury is shown by raising the head ; the neck 
yields a*ll at one place. When it is clear that the limbs are 
all quite powerless, the neck fairly broken, recovery is out 
of the question. The horse may be destroyed. This acci- 
dent is very rare on the road and on the race-course. It 
happened, however, on the Paisley course in 1836. The 
horse tumbled completely over his head, and lay with his 
tail homeward. 

Injuries of the Head. — The horse is often stunned from 
a side or a back fall, or from running against some fixed ob- 
stacle. The blow falls with such violence that the brain .re- 
ceives a shock from which it does not immediately recover. 
The horse lies motionless for three or four minutes ; few lie 
longer without return of sense. Nothing can be done but to 
remove harness, girths, or whatever may encumber him. 
He should not be urged to rise, till he is fairly restored to 
himself. When the skull is fractured, the bones driven intf 
the brain, the horse either dies immediately, or in less thai 
forty-eight hours, never being able to get up. Fracture of the 
skull is not always indicated by an external mark. But it may 
be surmised, if the horse be unable to rise, or to stand when 
raised. Time is to be allowed for him to recover from stun- 
ning. Unless death be immediate, the horse always strug- 
gles. There is no palsy like that produced by fracture of the 
neck, or of the back. One or two of the legs, generally two 
on one side, are powerless when the horse is raised, but in 
almost every case he can move them while he is lying. 
When raised it is apparent that he can put only two below 
him. I have never known a horse recover from an injury of 
this kind. 

Breaking Down. — There are two injuries which go under 
this name. One is merely a sprain of the back tendons, 
usually in a fore leg. It may be so slight as to escape no- 
tice till the horse be cool ; or it may be such as to make him 
fall very lame in the middle of his work. Pressure on the 
part injured produces pain. The horse should walk slowly 
h(jme. 



348 STABLE ECONOMY. 

The true breaking down is a rupture of the back tendons 
or of a ligament which assists them in supporting the fetlock- 
joint. The rupture occurs suddenly, and generally when 
the horse is at full speed, or leaping down hill. The hind 
legs are not, so far as I know, liable to this accident, and it 
rarely occurs in both of the fore ones. The horse stops in- 
stantly, or he falls. On rising, it is seen that he stands on 
his fetlocks ; they sink to the ground, the toe of the foot is 
turned up, and the sole looking forward. When only one 
leg suffers, the horse may possibly recover to do some kind 
of work, but he will hunt no more. He should be led slowly 
home. Sometimes only one branch of the ligament gives 
way. In that case the fetlock does not wholly come to the 
ground, and the horse may become as useful as ever. When 
both fetlocks come down the horse is ruined. 

Broken Leg. — On the road, or on the street, a horse some- 
times falls, makes several violent efforts to rise, and then 
lies still. Upon examination a fracture is found in one of his 
legs, generally a fore leg. There is something about this 
accident which I do not understand. It is far from being 
rare. In all the cases which have come under my own obser- 
vation, the rider or driver could only tell that the horse fell, 
and could not rise, or that he made several efforts to keep his 
feet before he went fairly down. He never knows whether 
the leg is broken in the fall, after the fall, or in trying to 
avoid it. It may be that the leg is sometimes broken by a 
blow from the opposite foot. In different horses I have seen 
the pastern, the shank, and the fore-arm, broken, but it is 
oftenest the shank, between the knee and the fetlock. 

It is a common opinion that a horse's bones, once broken, 
never unite. This is a standard error. A man who talks of 
curing fracture in a horse is pretty sure of a rebuke or a 
sneer. But, in truth, a broken bone unites as fast and firmly 
in horses as in men. The attempt to cure is seldom made, 
because the horse is rarely worth the cost. He may, after 
all, remain permanently stiff or lame, and fit only for particu- 
lar kinds of work, for which he will not bring as much money 
as will pay the keep and treatment, A stallion, a brood-mare, 
and a favorite, are almost the only horses upon whom an at- 
tempt is made to produce a cure, and for the sake of these it 
is well to know that a cure is often possible. 

Staking. — In leaping fences and gates, a stake sometimes 
wounds the belly. The slightest examination with the eye 
and the finger discovers the depth of the wound. When not 



ACCIDENTS OF WORK. 34ft 

into the belly, among the bowels, the horse may go home- 
When the belly is penetrated, a portion of bowel protrudes. 
Sometimes it is no larger than an egg. Whether large or 
little, the horse must not move a yard till something be done 
to replace the bowel, or to prevent further protrusion. As 
evfiry motion of the horse tends to force out more of the in- 
testine, he ought in the first place to be twitched. A twitch 
can be made from whip-cord, and a key or whip-handle will 
serve to tighten it, if nothing better be at hand. By a little 
gentle manipulation, the bowel may be replaced, the edges 
of the wound drawn together, and secured, by pins and tow, 
or hemp, and a bandage bound round the belly, sustaining a 
pad over the aperture ; the horse may then be led home, or 
to the nearest stable, there to remain till a veterinarian ar- 
rives. When the gut is wounded, it is not to be replaced 
till sewed ; none but the surgeon can do that properly. No 
hair nor the least particle of dust must enter the belly. When 
the bowel can not, or should not be put in place, a bandage 
and pad will prevent further escape till assistance is procured. 

Bleeding Wounds. — The shoulder and breast are exposed 
to deep and extensive wounds from shafts, from the pole and 
the splinter-bar. Until professional assistance can be obtained, 
all that need be done is to arrest the bleeding, which, however, 
is seldom very profuse from lacerated wounds. Some blood 
must escape, and much may be lost before life is endangered ; 
but if a large stream be running from some particular point, 
pressure may be applied till the veterinarian arrive. En- 
deavor to seize the wounded A^essel between the finger and 
thumb, or apply a finger on the origin of the stream. This is 
better than general pressure, by means of a handkerchief, 
which fills the wound with blood, and prevents a proper ex- 
amination by the veterinarian. Bleeding wounds on the legs 
may be bound by a handkerchief. 

Choking. — Heavy draught horses, going up hill with much 
weight behind, sometimes choke in the collar. The collar 
presses upon the windpipe, and the horse instantly falls; 
sometimes he staggers for a moment before sinking, but in 
general there is no warning. Should the fall throw the col- 
lar off the windpipe, the horse recovers immediately. The 
first thing to be done is to free the windpipe, if it be not al- 
ready free. The collar must be pulled down, or the draught 
rolled forward, so as to throw the strain from the collar. 
This must be done quickly ; pressure on the windpipe will 
produce death in three minutes. Should the driver observe 

30 



350 STABLE ECONOMY. 

the horse stagger before he falls, he may keep him on his 
feet by pulling him to a side, setting the wheels across the 
hill. 

When the horse is at a dead pull with his mouth full of 
food, he is very easily choked. The accident is very com- 
mon on canal banks. At certain places the horses are fed, 
and often put to draw before the mouth is empty. As the 
food goes down the gullet, it is intercepted by the collar, and 
the two pressing on the windpipe instantly choke the horse. 
He generally falls into the water. Many horses are lost in 
this way. The mouth should be quite empty before the 
horse is yoked. Before starting, a little water may be given, 
which will carry the contents of the mouth before it. No 
horse should be put to a hill, or to any dead pull, with food 
in his mouth ; and, food or no food, the driver should always 
keep his eye on the collar, and his hand at the head, while 
the horse is going up a steep hill, with much weight behind 
him. 

Fast-working horses are liable to what is termed swooning 
in the collar. The horse staggers, swings from side to side, 
lies on the pole, stops and falls or falls running. I know not 
whether this arises from pressure on the windpipe, or from 
accumulation of blood in the head. It is most common in hot 
weather, going up hill ; some are very liable to it. When- 
ever the horse shows any giddiness, he should be pulled up. 
He will recover in a minute. Before proceeding, see that 
the windpipe be free, and the bearing-rein slack. Should the 
horse fall, remove harness, and assist him to rise, when he 
revives. If water be at hand, give two or three quarts, and 
start at a gentle pace. It is needless to bleed him at the 
mouth. If bloodletting is to do any good, it should be from 
the neck after work is over ; but it is rarely necessary. Next 
journey, change the horse's place to the other side, to the 
lead or to the wheel. Let his head be quite free, and see if 
his collar can be improved ; and let him be fed an hour ear- 
lier than usual before going to work. 

Over-Marked. — This word is synonymous with over- 
exerted, over-done, over-driven, distressed, and blown. All 
are applied, indifferently, to congestion of the lungs, to spasm 
of the diaphragm, and to excessive fatigue. 

Congestion of the Lungs does not occur all at once. It is 
\he consequence of keeping the horse too long at a fast pace, 
or at the top of his speed. The first symptom is diihcult 
breathing. It becomes remarkably quick and short ; the nos- 



ACCIDENTS OF WORK. 351 

nils are widely dilated; the horse frequently stretches oul 
nis head, as if he wanted more rein, yet goes no faster when 
ne gets it ; at intervals, short or long, according to the degree 
of congestion, he makes a deep, rapid inspiration, like a hur- 
ried sigh ; the rider feels this though he can not hear it ; his 
knees are thrown apart by the expansion of the chest. When 
these symptoms are apparent, congestion has begun in the 
lungs. If the horse be now pulled up, or even if his pace be 
slackened, he recovers his breathing in a little time, varying 
according to his condition, the depth of his chest, and the de- 
gree of congestion. Many horses become sulky and refuse 
to proceed any further ; but the great majority of those em- 
ployed at fast work can be urged on till they are seriously in- 
jured or destroyed. The horse, the camel, and the rein-deer, 
are, perhaps, the only animals that will kill themselves in the 
service of man. The dog, the ox, the elephant, and perhaps 
the ass and mule, disregard the lash when it demands oppres- 
sive exertion. But the horse has been so long and so com- 
pletely subdued, that his obedience seems to have become 
hereditary. 

If urged on after the first symptoms, the breathing becomes 
more difficult ; the deep sigh and the protrusion of the muz- 
zle more frequent. By-and-by the horse falters ; his motions 
are sluggish, irregular, confused ; he sinks often on his hind 
fetlocks, he staggers, reels, makes a running fall, and at last 
drops, or stands still gasping for breath. For a while before 
the horse is at his worst, he is so feeble that when put to a 
ditch or fence he is unable to clear it. 

To prevent deadly or dangerous over-marking, the horse 
ought to be pulled up at the first sign of distress. If in good 
condition, he may recover his wind in a few seconds ; if un- 
prepared for such exertion, or if his chest be small, it may be 
several minutes ere he revive, and a very little will prevent 
him from proceeding any further. 

When the distress is allowed to become very great, the 
horse must stop. Slacken the girths immediately, and take 
off the saddle. This is important: but some grooms have got 
a foolish notion that it is not right to remove the girths all at 
once in such a case. They say the wind will burst the 
horse. There is no need for argument here. I have re- 
peatedly pui the matter to experiment, and am perfectly satis- 
fied that it is proper in every case to take the girths away as 
quickly as possible. Very often the horse recovers immedi- 
ately, particularly when the girths have been drawn very 



352 STABLE ECONOMY. 

tightly, as they mostly always are in hunting and in ra« 
cing. 

Let the horse stand with his head to the wind, take off the 
girths, and wait a little. He will get better presently, in five 
or ten minutes, and then he may be led home. He must be 
placed in a cold, airy stable ; a warm or close one is very 
dangerous. If the breathing does not become easier in eight 
or ten minutes, the horse must be bled ; but if, in this time, 
his breathing become tolerably quiet, bleeding may be de- 
layed till the horse is stabled, and it will then be seen 
whether or not the operation is needful. 

Bleeding, when properly managed, gives immediate and 
certain relief ; but it is folly to . bleed from the mouth in a 
case of this kind. Open the neck vein, and take away six or 
eight quarts of blood, as quickly as possible. As the skin 
cools, dry it, and apply clothes. After the bleeding, give six 
drachms of the carbonate of ammonia, powdered, and made 
into a ball with water and linseed-meal. Give the first three 
or four quarts of water quite cold, the rest tepid. Keep the 
legs warm, give a bran-mash, and open the stable windows. 

Sometimes the horse reaches home before it is apparent 
that he is much the worse of his work. Perhaps he is sta- 
bled and dressed before it is observed that his breathing is 
still quick, that he does not eat, that his eye is red, his crest 
sunk, and flank tucked up. Put a finger upon the vein ; if it 
do not rise, bleeding need not be tried. Give the carbonate 
of ammonia, and repeat it in an hour. Should the horse be 
no better at the end of that time, it is probable he will then 
bleed. The ammonia should make the blood flow. If live- 
lier and the breathing easier, bleeding will not be necessary. 
Keep the legs and body warm ; but give pure and cool air to 
breathe. Next day the veterinarian will see whether there be 
any danger of inflamed lungs, which is often the result of 
congestion. 

Spasm of the Diaphragm takes place when the horse is at 
work, or it is obsorved whenever he is pulled up. His flanks 
heave rapidly ; every fall is a convulsive jerk which shakes 
the whole body ; a loud noise is heard, as if the heart were 
beating violently against the side. The diaphragm seems to 
be the seat of intermitting spasm. The action of the heart is 
always feeble and indistinct. 

This affection is not very common. In a few cases it ap- 
pears to exist independent of congestion in the lungs, but most 
frequently the two are combined. They are produced by the 



KINDS OF WORK. 353 

same causes. If the spasm do not cease in ten or fifteen 
minutes, give a dose of the carbonate of ammonia ; and if the 
horse is not better in an hour, let him be copiously bled. 

Excessive Fatigue is the result of a long rather than of a 
fast journey. The horse is very dull, his movements slow 
and stiff; he trips or stumbles at almost every step ; when 
he gets home he eats little or nothing, lies much, is very rest- 
less, often changing his position ; he drinks freely ; some- 
times he is a little fevered, the eye red and mouth hot. 
When there is no fever, the horse may have a cordial ball 
and his grain. When there is any sign of fever, a ball 
of the carbonate of ammonia is better ; give a bran-mash, 
plenty of gruel, tepid water, only half grain, a good bed, a 
quiet stable, and rest for two or three days. On the second 
day the horse should recover his spirits and appetite. Stiff- 
ness remains for a few days longer. 



KINDS OP WORK. 

Power and Speed bear a certain relation one to another. 
It has been long and well known that no horse can exert all 
his speed and all his strength at the same moment ; as we 
increase the pace beyond a certain point, we must reduce the 
load ; that as we reduce the load we may increase the pace ; 
and that as we increase the demand, either for power or for 
speed, we must shorten the duration of labor. These are 
general principles, applicable to all kinds of horses, and to 
all kinds of work, at least to all work that deserves the name 
of labor. 

Various experiments, chiefly in relation to drawing, have been 
made for the purpose of ascertaining in what degree power and 
duration decline as the volocity rises. But the strength and the 
speed vary so much in different horses, and even in the same 
horse at different times, that an approximation to the relation 
which one bears to another, is all that can be obtained or expect- 
ed. The power of a horse is estimated by the load he can draw 
or carry a given distance in a given time. In drawing it has 
been stated as equal to a force of 160 pounds, the pace being 
about 2-i- miles per hour. Some experimentalists have rated 
it at only 112, others so high as 193, the pace being the same. 
But horses are so different that hardly two experiments 
can yield precisely the same results. The following table 
was constructed to show the rate at which power and dura* 

30* 



354 STABLE ECONOMY. 

uon decline as the pace is raised , but it seems of no uso eX' 
cept to illustrate the general principle. 

Pace in Miles Power exerted Duration of Exertion 

per Hour. in lbs. in Hours. 

2 112 10 

3 74 two thirds 9 

4 56 8 

5 44 four fifths 7 

6 37 one third 6 

7 32 5 

8 28 4 

9 24 eight ninths 3 

10 22 one tenth 2 

11 20 four elevenths 1 

In the table opposite will be found a statement of work at dif- 
ferent paces. The table is not so complete as I wish, but so 
far as it goes it shows the amount of work actually performed. 
The weight of the load is stated at the highest, but on many 
days it may be considerably lighter, especially in stage- 
coaches. 



KINDS OF WORK. 



355 



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356 STABLE ECONOMY. 

Travelling. — The preparation for a long journey should 
consist in training the horse to suffer, with impunity, the in- 
fluence of those agents and circumstances to which his work 
will expose him. He should be put into condition for the 
pace, the distance, and the burden ; he should be well inured 
to the harness, to the weather, bad grooming, indifferent sta- 
bling, and irregular feeding hours. Without he be previously 
accustomed to all that he is likely to meet with in the course 
of his journey, a cold, a sore back, or a bad appetite, may 
throw the horse out of work when his place can not be easily 
supplied. 

When there is no time for preparation, the horse may be 
conditioned on the road, beginning by short stages and pro- 
ceeding at a gentle pace, and giving additional attention to 
feeding, watering, stabling, and dressing. 

The horse should be shod a few days before starting. If 
lamed in the operation, the evil will be apparent, and cured in 
sufficient time to let him proceed. 

For a journey of about 300 miles, the horse may travel 
from 20 to 25 miles every lawful day, resting on Sunday, and 
doing the work in two- stages, when the pace reaches six 
miles per hour. This work requires a seasoned horse. 

Hunting requires much speed, and more stoutness. The 
horse must be swift and enduring. The pace seldom exceeds 
twelve miles per hour, and when quicker, or so quick, the run 
is short, soon over, or interrupted ; yet soft sinking ground 
hills, and leaps, make this pace very severe even on the best 
horses. Good legs are essential only when the weight is 
heavy, the ground generally deep, or the leaps numerous. 

The time required for preparation varies from two to four 
months. When the horse is neither very fat nor very lean, 
he may be trained to hunting in three months ; or if he has 
been doing some work for two or three weeks previously, or 
if he has a deep chest, wide nostrils, and good legs, two 
months may serve. In that time he may have all the power 
and speed, and stoutness, his work requires. Even after one 
month's preparation, he may be fit to enter the field, but when 
there he must be carefully managed, not tasked very far, nor 
very fast. His work must be such only as he would receive 
in training. 

The means employed for conditioning hunters, are physic 
exertion, sweating, and feeding. 

On the day before work, the horse should have exercise 
sufficient to empty the bowels ; if a great eater, he should 



KINDS OF WORK. 357 

have no hay before him within eight hours of going to the 
field ; on the working day he should have no water withir, 
four hours of going to work, and his grain should be eaten 
about three hours before he enters the field. When the horse 
has above five or six miles to go ere he reaches cover, re- 
striction as to fodder and water is less necessary, for the 
bowels are emptied on the way, the distance being performed 
at a gentle pace, perhaps at the rate of seven miles per hour. 

The number of working days must vary with the condition 
of the horse in relation to his work. Sometimes he may go 
out every second day, sometimes twice a week will be suf- 
ficiently often, and after a very hard day the horse may not 
be able to come out again till the sixth or seventh. If he be 
in good spirits, full of life, and feeding heartily to-day, he 
may work to-morrow. 

While the horse can hunt three days a week, he requires 
almost no exercise on his blank days ; still he should have 
some, to stretch the legs, create an appetite, and empty the 
bowels. A walk of half an hour may be sufficient. Such 
work forbids medicines and sweating. When the work is so 
severe, or the horse so weak, or his legs so bad that he can 
not hunt above twice or thrice a fortnight, some alterative or 
(evacuating medicine is usually required in the interval to pre- 
sent plethora. To other horses, cordials may be needful to 
create an appetite, or sweating exertion to keep the lungs in 
«rder. In general a stout hnnter should have a sweat every 
chird day. Great eaters, with defective legs, may need physic 
every &ix or eight weeks, to keep the carcass light, and to 
prevent plethora. Those who work well and feed well, may 
require an alterative every time they have to rest more 'han 
three days. 

Racing requires more speed and less stoutness than hunt- 
ing requires. The means employed to confer these are the 
same in both ; the racer does Jiot work so often, and, in train- 
ing, his exercise is not so severe ; but sweating and purging 
are carried farther in the racing than in the hunting stable, 
particularly with robust horses, near to or at maturity. The 
preparation, however, varies with the horse's age, the length 
of his race, the weight he has to carry, the condition of his 
wind and of his legs ; with his disposition to work and to 
eat, with his temper, and with several other circumstances, 
all which are well known among practised trainers to require 
Bome peculiar treatment. These matters are so well under- 
stood by the only people who are interested in them, that it 



358 STABLE ECONOMY. 

seems unnecessary for me to enter into detail ; all that I could 
say about racing would be of very little use to anybody. 

Coaching. — The horses employed in stage-coaches, mails, 
canal-boats, railways, and other public conveyances, are all 
prepared for work in nearly the same way ; some difference, 
nowever, must be made according to the pace and the horse's 
condition. The proprietor usually allows a certain time to 
feed and to. exercise the horse. It is supposed by a great 
many, that a new, an unseasoned horse, can not be in con- 
dition for work till he has been fed for some days or weeks 
upon hard food, oats, beans, and hay ; some exercise is given, 
but, in general, I think not enough. They speak and act as 
if the feeding were the most essential part of the preparation. 
It is a great deal ; but the exercise is quite as important. 
There is no kind nor quantity of food, that will, by itself, put 
a horse into condition for fast work. Unless he have exercise, 
gradually increasing in speed and distance as he can bear it, 
and increased till it closely resemble the work, the work can 
not be done easily nor safely. 

The ordinary length of a stage is eight miles ; but the 
owner of a large stud should endeavor to have some four-mile 
istages. At this short distance, unseasoned horses can easily 
be prepared for the longer stages, and while under prepara- 
tion they are earning their food. 

Some proprietors give physic and some bleed, but unless 
the horse be lusty, or very large-bellied, or the weather very 
hot, physic and blood-letting are not imperiously demanded. 

In Mr. Lyon's stud the preparation is short and simple. 
Upon the first day the horse is tried in harness. If very fat, 
he gets one dose of physic, but in general no medicine is giv- 
en. The horse is put at once upon working diet ; he gets 
walking and trotting exercise for a week or ten days, and sub- 
sequently he goes to the road. In the first fortnight the horse 
may do only half work, going, perhaps, only half a journey 
every time he is out, or a whole journey every second or third 
day. By the end of four or five weeks, the horse is usually 
ready for full work. 

Mr. Fraser, of the Eagle Inn, usually puts each new horse 
through a course of physic, generally consisting of three 
doses He believes that the physic renders the horse less 
liable to inflammatory complaints ; and when he is fat, it cer 
tainly does so. Some, however, do not need three doses, and 
some do not get more than one or two. 

The work performed by coach-horses varies from fifty to 



KINDS OF WORK. 369 

eighty miles per week, according to the pace, weight of load^ 
and condition of the road. Four-horse coaches, going at nine 
miles per hour, and weighing about forty-five Hundred weight, 
usually require a horse for every two miles, counting the dis- 
tance both ways. A coach running between two places forty 
miles distant, employs abcut forty horses to take her away 
and bring her back. 

In some cases the horses work every day, in others only 
tbrice a week, doing, however, double the work every day 
they are out. When it can be so arranged, it is much better 
for the horse to do eight miles every day, than to do sixteen 
every second day. 

The work is not always quite regular. An able horse has 
occasionally, perhaps once or twice a week, to perform a 
double journey, one of the team being defective, able for only 
half work, or during a few days unfit for any. 

The Glasgow and Paisley Coaches are horsed by Messrs. 
Lyon and Walker. They run every hour. The distance is 
very nearly eight miles, which is done in one hour by two 
horses. When snow lies deep, three and sometimes four are 
put to the coach. The horses stand for three minutes at half- 
way. They work five days a week, doing sixteen miles each 
day. They go and return, resting from one hour to six. 
This is full work ; but in busy times the horses sometimes 
run a double, or even treble journey, getting some indulgence 
for a day or two afterward. Defective and unseasoned horse? 
do only half work. They may go out to-day and not returp 
till to-morrow. Some others, very good horses, but easily 
injured, are so arranged that they shall have a longer time to 
rest. They usually rest one or two hours after the first stage 
before commencing the second ; but these delicate horses are 
sent out in the morning, rested all day, and returned at night. 
Many, with bad wind, bad appetite, or bad legs, are thus kept 
at full work, who would be knocked up in a week, if required 
to perform the second stage in an hour after completing the 
first. Coaching-horses rarely receive any exercise on blank 
days. They are kept in the stable, well-bedded, and encour- 
aged to lie. 

Carting. — Cart-horses work from eight to ten hours every 
day, except Sunday. The pace varies from two miles to 
three and a half per hour. At long distances the draught 
rarely exceeds thirty hundred weight, cart included. At 
short, distances it ranges from thirty to forty. Twenty-foui 
hundred weight, besides the cart, which weighs seven oi 



360 STABLE ECONOMY. 

eight, is the usual load hereabouts, all placed on two 
wheels. 

The preparation for 'carting is very simple. The horse is 
put at once to work ; for the first ten or fourteen days he does 
only half work, afterward he does a little more every day, or 
every other day, till he is fully conditioned. 

Ploughing. — " The following has been ascertained to be 
the quantity of land ploughed, and the ground gone over by a 
team working nine hours : — 

Breadtli of furrow At 1^ miles per hour. At 2 miles per hour. 

Slice. Acre. Rds. Per. Acre. Rds. Per. 

8 inches, 3 36 117 

9 " 1 14 1 1 33 

10 « 1 35 1 2 21 

11 « 1 1 14 13 5 

" The distance travelled at the slow pace, was twelve 
miles, at the quicker it was sixteen miles."* 

REPOSE. 

In another place I have stated the immediate effects of 
muscular exertion. Fatigue, the result of exertion, consists 
in a particular state of the muscles, the joints, the sinews, and 
some other parts. Action exhausts the muscles, consumes 
the blood, the joint-oil, and other fluids connected with mo- 
tion. Maintained for a certain time, action also inflames the 
muscles, the sinews, and the joints. During repose, these 
parts should be partly or entirely restored to that condition 
which is most favorable to exertion. But if the rest be dis- 
turbed, or its proper duration abridged, the consequences are 
more serious than people generally imagine. The loss of 
one night's rest renders the horse unfit for work next day. 
There are many cases, however, in which the horse is almost 
never permitted to enjoy complete repose. He is frequently 
compelled to stand when he ought to be lying. The conse- 
quences are precisely the same as those arising from excess 
of work. 

The horse does not sleep much, perhaps little more than 
four or five hours out of the twenty-four. He can rest, how- 
ever, pretty well when he is standing, and still better when 
he is lying, though he should not sleep. 

By a peculiar arrangement in the horse's limbs, he is able 

to obtain more rest while standing than any animal I know 

of ; yet, without recubation, his repose is never completed. 

He may be kept always on his feet, yet he never works so 

• Complete Grazier, p. 198. 



REPOSE ^6\ 

well, nor lasts so long, as when he lies six or eight hours 
daily. The legs fail, the horse becomes stiff; his joints and 
sinews suffer from repeated slight attacks of inflammation, 
which at last produce lameness. The work is blamed, and 
very often work is the only cause ; but sometimes it is the 
want of rest, not excess of work, that does the mischief. 

The bed should be well made, the stall sufficiently wide, 
and the stable quiet. There should be no work going on, nor 
any person admitted to the stable while the horse is reposing, 
101 while he is likely to be lying. Two horses should never 
stand all night in one stall, as often happens at crowded 
tables. Neither can lie, and that rest which either could 
take standing, is broken by the other. 

Some horses never lie, they sleep standing, or reclining 
against the travis. A few sink on their knees, and sleep foi 
a few minutes in that position. Some have a stiffness of the 
back, which renders them unable to rise without assistance, 
and therefore they forbear to lie, assistance not always coming 
when they want it. Others have got a fright in a narrow 
stall, which may have prevented them from rising easily, or 
at all. This is remembered for ever, and the horse stands 
always, however wide his stall may be made. Others still, 
refuse to He after having been halter-cast and severely in- 
jured ; they will not lie while the head is tied. 

Some of these horses may, however, be induced to lie. 
Try a loose box, where the horse will have plenty of room, 
and need not be tied up. If that can not be procured, put 
two gangway bales to his stall ; these will confine him to it, 
and his head may be free. His stall should be wide. 

If the horse can not be induced to lie, he may be supported 
while standing. Place him in slings. This apparatus con- 
sists of a broad canvass-belt, which goes under the belly, ex- 
tending from the points of the elbows to the sheath. At each 
extremity there is a strong shaft, or staff, to which the sus- 
pending ropes are attached, and carried to the roof, or stall- 
posts. A breast-strap and a breechin are necessary to keep 
the belt in its place. The horse is not suspended. The 
belt is fixed close to the belly. When the horse is disposed 
to rest his legs, he has only to bend them, and the belt re- 
ceives his body. Whenever he is tired of this support, he 
again stands on his legs. The breechin should be strong and 
broad, for many horses throw as much weight upon that as 
upon the belt. The belt is commonly made out of a canvass 
sack, stuffed with hay, and stitched like a mattress. 

31 



352 STABLE ECONOMY. 



EIGHTH CHAPTER. 

iMANAGEMENT OF DISEASED AND DEFECTIVE HORSEa 

Young Horses are not at full strength till they are nearly 
five years old. At fast work they require careful shoeing to 
prevent cutting, careful stable-management to prevent the 
evils arising from changes of temperature, to which they are 
more liable than mature horses. They are not fit for full 
work, but they require good feeding for what they do. 

Old Horses, those above ten or twelve, are rarely fit for 
long stages. They are soon exhausted. They need full 
feeding ; and some, having bad teeth, need to have much of 
their food broken or cooked. 

Defective Fore Legs last longest in harness, and in the lead ; 
but when the horse is apt to fall, when he is a notorious 
stumbler, he is better in the wheel. The other horse helps 
to keep him on his feet. 

Roarers do most work when their work is slow. Some 
can not go above five miles an hour : and many can not go 
more than four miles, when the pace is near eight per hour. 
Some do better on one side of a coach than on another. The 
head should not be confined by the bearing-rein, and the 
throat-lash should be loose. Time must be given in up-hill 
work, otherwise the roarer may choke and fall. He should 
work with little food in the belly ; the first mile is sometimes 
the worst with him ; a slower pace for the next half mile en- 
ables him to finish the remainder with less distress than when 
he is pushed from the start. 

Chronic Cough, that is, a settled cough, is very common 
among fast-workers. It is most frequent when the horse is 
taken from the stable, when he returns to it, and after drinking 
and feeding. There is no cure. Occasionally a mild dose 
of physic ; and after severe work, or much exposure in bad 



DISEASED AND DEFECTIVE HORSES. 363 

weather, cordial balls soften and mitigate the cough. Many 
horses have it for years without any apparent evil, but it often 
produces broken wind. Carrots and boiled barley are good. 
The work should be regular. 

Broken-winded horses require regular work, regular feeding, 
and a rich concentrated diet, consisting of oats, beans, and 
barley, in large measure, with a limited allowance of fodder. 
Wheat straw seems better than hay for these horses. From 
six to eight pounds is sufficient, if the work be fast ; when 
slow, there is less need for restriction ; carrots and boiled 
barley, one or both, may be of use. Bad food seems more 
injurious to broken-winded than to healthy horses. They 
drink much water, and before work they should not have 
so much as they would take. At night no restriction is 
necessary. Broken-winded horses are rarely fit for more 
than an eight -mile stage, to which they need an hour. But 
there are various degrees of the disease, some being much 
worse than others. 

Fig. 23. 




Crib-biters are horses who swallow air by a peculiar effort. 
They seize the manger or any other fixture with the fore 
teeth, arch the neck, and gulp over a quantity of air, making, 
at the same time, a grunting kind of noise. Horses often 
learn this from others : they should stand alone. 

When the crib-biter swallows so much air as to enlarge 
his belly, to incommode his breathing, make him liable to 
frequent attacks of colic, or keep him lean, a broad strap may 



364 STABLE ECONOMY. 

be put on the throat, tight enough to prevent dilatation of the 
gullet, yet not to stop the return of blood from the head. 

There is a kind of muzzle sometimes used for the purpose 
of preventing crib-biting among valuable horses. Its most 
essential part is a kind of rack, consisting of two iron spars 
jointed at each extremity, and curved to receive the muzzle. 
The spars are about three fourths of an inch broad ; the space 
between them is wide enough to receive the lips, and let 
them seize the grain and hay, but so narrow that it will not 
admit the teeth. The horse can eat well enough ; he can 
reach his food with the lips, but he can seize nothing with 
his fore teeth. This muzzle is better than a strap, which 
disposes the horse to swelling of the head, and is blamed for 
producing roaring. 

Wind-sucking consists in swallowing air without applying 
the teeth to any fixture. The horse presses his lips against 
the edge of the manger, having his neck and back arched, 
and his feet all gathered together. This habit does not seem 
to be so often injurious as crib-biting. It is said that a 
muzzle, having three or four short sharp spikes at bottom, 
will prevent it. The points run into the lips when the horse 
attempts to place them in position for sucking or swallowing 
air. 

Megrims \or Epilepsy']. — Some horses are liable to giddi- 
ness at work. It is not the same as choking or swooning in 
the collar. It seems to be a kind of apoplexy. The horse 
drops without the least warning, lies for a few seconds insen- 
sible, and then rises somewhat confused. After two or three 
attacks, the horse is sure to have more. Saddle-horses are 
not exempt. These horses should be kept at slow work in 
double harness. Their work and feeding should be always 
the same. Excess or deficiency of what they are accus- 
tomed to, renders the attacks more frequent. Physic may be 
given thrice a year or oftener. The food should never be 
constipating. The bearing-rein should always be free. If 
the horse be observed to stagger, he should be pulled up, and 
allowed to stand two or three minutes. When he falls, he 
needs nothing but time to recover his senses. 

Blind Horses should not be placed within reach of a mis- 
chievous neighbor. They can not defend themselves nor get 
out of the way. In harness the wheel suits them better than 
the lead. When only one eye is lost, the horse should work 
on the side from which he sees 



DISEASED AND DEFECTIVE HORSES. 366 

Glandered Horses often work for years after they are in- 
curably diseased. They require to be well fed, well lodged, 
and well groomed. So far as my experience has gone, med- 
icine of all kinds is entirely thrown away upon them. 

When the disease appears in a sound stud, the horse 
should be destroyed, or at least removed without delay. It 
is possible he may recover ; and, if he can be kept where he 
.can do no harm, he may have a trial. If permitted to remain, 
he is just as likely to give the disease to every horse in the 
stable, as to get better himself. It is generally supposed 
that glanders can not be communicated without actual appli- 
cation of the matter. This is not certain. I am pretty sure 
that, in some forms, it will spread through the air. It is 
prudent to suspect and to watch every horse that has breathed 
under the same roof with a glandered one. 

When several are diseased, it may be worth while keeping 
them. They may oe all put to one road, and kept in stables 
apart from the others ; having men, harness, pole, and pole- 
chains, entirely to themselves. When it can be managed, 
they should not even enter the stable-yard where there are 
sound horses, and the men should be carefully excluded from 
every stable but their own. 

When the horses die off, so that sufficient are not left to do 
the work, their place may be supplied by others, sound, but 
of little value. In this way, however, the disease is kept up. 
It is better to destroy the few that remain. Let the stalls, 
every portion of the stables, from floor to roof, both inclusive; 
be well washed with soap or sand and water. Let the wood- 
work be seraped or planed, and ragged portions chipped quite 
out. If the mangers and racks be of wood, and much wasted, 
remove them altogether, and replace them by others of iron. 
After washing, give all the stone or brick a coat of hot lime- 
water. Till all this is well and completely done, no sound 
horse should enter the stable ; and even after it is done, the 
stable should stand empty for a week or two. 

Sickness. — This word is usually applied to all dangerous 
or febrile diseases, all in which the horse is dull, pained, and 
without appetite. The stable-management of these must vary- 
according to the nature of the illness. Directions are given 
by the medical attendant, as to diet, drink, ventilation, cloth- 
ing, exercise, and other matters likely to exert any influence 
upon the disease. In general, bran-mashes, carrots, green 
food, and hay, form the sick horse's diet ; gruel, or tepid 
water, his drink. Whatever be *.he surgeon's orders, they 

30* 



566 , STABLE ECONGMY. 

should be strictly obeyed. In many cases a handful of oats 
or a bucket of cold water, may keep the horse a week longer 
from work, or even kill him. 

Bleeding. — After a horse has been bled from the neck, let 
his; head be tied up for at least three hours , and if there be 
no objection, it had better be tied up all night. Never tie it 
higher than the manger. If the horse happen to faint, as 
some do after a bleeding, he may be choked. Thb head is 
tied high enough, when the horse can not get it lower than 
the bottom of the manger. Never remove the pin and tow by 
which the vein is secured. They will fall away in a few 
days ; but though they should remain for eight or ten, they 
will do no harm. If removed too soon the vein is apt to in- 
flame. It is best to let them remain. 

Fomenting. — In fomenting for lameness or an external in- 
jury, the groom rarely has enough of water, and he does 
not continue the bathing long enough to do any good. If the 
leg is to be fomented, get a pailful of water as hot as the hand 
can bear it ; put the horse's foot into it, and with a large 
sponge lave the water up as high as the shoulder, and keep 
it constantly running down the whole limb. Foment for 
about half-an-hour, and keep the water hot by adding more. 
If a poultice or wet bandage is to succeed the fomentation, 
apply it immediately, before the leg has time to cool. 

Puidlicing. — Warm poultices are upually composed of bran- 
mash, to which it is proper to add turnips, linseed-meal, or 
oatmeal porridge ; either will do, and one of them is necessa- 
ry, for bran alone does not retain heat and moisture suffi- 
ciently. 

Whether applied for sores, bruises, or sprains, the poultice 
should be large, moist, and as warm as possible and con- 
venient. It is almost invariably too small ; it should cover a 
good deal more than the part injured. It should have as much 
water as it will hold, and more should be applied every second 
or third hour, either by pouring it on the poultice, or by dip- 
ping or soaking it. Care must be taken that no part of the 
cords or bandages be too tight. They should admit the finger 
quite easily after they are all adjusted. When properly ap- 
plied, and properly attended, a good poultice need not be 
changed in less than twenty-four hours. When the horse tears 
it oft' with his teeth he must be tied up , when he paws or 
throws it off*, he must be shackled. 

When too small, a poultice does little good ; when too dry, 
it confines heat, and increases inflammation ; when the strings 



MEDICAL ATTENDANCE. 367 

are too tight, they stop the circulation of blood, cut the skin, 
*,nd swell the leg. 

Blistering. — Blistering plasters are never applied to horses 
We always use an ointment, of which rather more than a half 
is well rubbed into the part to be blistered, while the remain- 
der is thinly and equally spread over the part that has been 
rubbed. When there is any danger of the ointment running 
and acting upon places that should not be blistered, they must 
be covered with a stiff' ointment made of hog's lard and bees- 
wax. 

The bedding is to be removed when the leg s blistered. 
To prevent the horse from slipping upon the stones, they may 
be covered with a little short litter, sawdust, or bark. 

The horse's head must be secured in such a way that he 
can not reach the blister with his teeth. Put him into a nar- 
row stall, and tie his head firmly to the rack. When a hind- 
leg is blistered, fasten a small bundle of straw to each heel- 
post : place it high up, opposite the haunch. It keeps the 
legs off the posts, against which the horse is very apt to rub 
them. 

When the blister has become quite dry, the head may in 
general be freed, and the horse let down. But sometimes it 
remains itchy after it is dry, and the horse rubs it. In that 
case he must be tied up again. If he get very tired, and 
threaten to go down on his haunches, put the beads on his 
neck, let go the head, give a good bed, and let the horse rest 
all day, a man watching him, if the beads are not sufficient to 
keep away the teeth. At night he may again be tied up, if 
there be any fear of his rubbing the blister. 

When the blister is quite dry, put some sweet oil on it, and 
repeat it every second day. Without orders from the veteri- 
narian, the blister is not to be washed off, either soon or late. 
Give it plenty of oil and time, and it will fall off as the new 
hair grows. By washing, the raw skin is often exposed, the 
hair torn out, and the horse blemished. 

Medical Attendance. 

The people who know, or pretend to know, anything about 
the diseases of horses, may be divided into three classes : — 

Owners and their stablemen form one class. They stand 
at the bottom of the list, having just sufficient knowledge to 
prove they have any ; that little varies ; but in general it goes 
no further than to name a few common drugs, and a few com- 



368 STABLE ECONOMY. 

mon diseases. They know that aloes and resin are two dif- 
ferent things ; they can tell when a horse has broken wind, 
when he is a roarer, when a crib-biter, when he is lame, and 
when he is sick. Some can bleed, give a ball, and put in a 
rowel. Though they can tell when a horse is ill, yet they 
can not tell what ails him, unless it be some common affair, 
such as the influenza, which they may see often. They 
know when a horse is lame ; but they are not very often able 
to discover where. When they blame the shoulder, it is very 
likely to be the foot. They can perform a few simple opera- 
tions, among which bleeding and balling stand foremost ; but few 
can perform these well, simple as they are, and many bungle 
them most wretchedly. In truth, they know so little, that 
they can not be depended on. They are just as likely to be 
wrong as right. Bui, notwithstanding this, it must be allow- 
ed that they know something, although they can not be said 
to know anything well. They confound one thing with 
another, like it, but not the same ; grease, for instance, with 
farcy ; a common cold with glanders ; swelled leg with a 
sprain ; foot lameness with shoulder lameness ; and so forth 
in a hundred other things. 

Horse-shoers and village blacksmiths form another class. 
Some have seen medicines, diseases, and operations, while 
in the service of a veterinarian, and some have learned a little 
about them merely by reading books and being consulted by 
the owner or his groom. Those bred in the country know 
less than an old stableman ; those v/ho have been in the em- 
ployment of a veterinarian, sometimes know more. The little 
they learn is learned very slowly, and always imperfectly ; 
but in time, some of them get a name, and subsequently a 
good deal to do, which teaches them more or less. Their 
knowledge, at best, resembles that of a nurse employed in an 
hospital, or about sick persons. Being ignorant of anatomy 
and physiology, they never improve beyond a certain point, 
and there are hundreds of things which they can not compre- 
hend nor manage. Operations which require cutting they 
rarely try, and still more rarely perform as they ought to be 
performed. Most of them have a few books, of which the bad 
mislead them, and the good puzzle them. 

All boast of practical experience, by which they mean they 
have seen a great deal. In all ranks, there are men who raise 
mighty pretensions upon a very slender foundation. Give 
them a telescope view of the moon, and they instantly become 
astronomers • show them a few experiments, and they are 



MEDICAL ATTENDANCE. 369 

converted into chymists ; when they have seen a skeleton they 
have studied anatomy ; when they have opened an abscess, 
or drawn blood, they are good surgeons, having performed 
many dangerous and difficult operations with great success. 
To such people is the world indebted for all kinds of quackery, 
and a good deal of knavery. Their practical experience is 
but a shadow ; their opinion a guess ; their performance a 
failure ; and their pretensions to skill, what are they, but the 
assumptions of ignorance, or the disguises of imposition ? 

The blacksmith and shoer usually term themselves farriers ; 
but in most all large towns there are some who take the title 
of veterinary surgeons, a kind of fraud for which the law has 
provided no remedy. 

Veterinary surgeons form a third, and the only legitimate 
class of medical attendants on the horse. The term veteri- 
narian came into use when colleges were established in dif- 
ferent parts of Europe for improving, or rather for creating the 
art of treating disease in the lower animals. France founded in 
1761 the first school of this kind. There were none in this 
country till thirty years afterward. At present there are two 
at London and one at Edinburgh. In each of these schools, 
the structure and diseases of domestic animals are taught from 
observations and study of the dead and of the living. The 
kind of instruction is not quite the same at each school ; but 
in all, the students have opportunities, many or more, of ex- 
amining every part of the frame, both in health and in disease, 
and of watching and treating patients of almost every kind. 
In one winter, an industrious student will see as much at 
these places as the people who boast of great experience will 
see in the whole course of their lives ; and then everything 
is seen in the right way, the inside as well as the outside. 
After attending a stated period, the pupils are brought before 
a Board of Examiners, who ascertain their qualification. If 
fit to practise, they obtain a certificate, which is termed a 
diploma ; if not, they are referred to a longer course of study. 
No one who wants a diploma is a veterinary surgeon. A 
pretender may assume the name, and among an ignorant 
people he may carry on the imposition pretty well, and for a 
good while ; but the day sec.s to be coming when quackery 
must expire. The man of education now disdains the proffer- 
ed services of an empiric for himself, and, erelong, he will 
take care that his horse or his dog shall not be added to the 
victims already sacrificed to ignorance. 

THE END. 



INDEX. 



A. 

Abdomen, Size of; in Training 

Absolute Idleness . 

A-bsorbents . 

Abstinence, Debility of . 
" Indigestion of . 

Acceleration of breathing 
" of Circulation 

Accidents from Restraint 
" Work. 

Acute Indigestion . 

Agents of Training . 

" which injure Condition 

Air, impure .... 
" Evils of 
" " Outlets of 

Air, pure . 
" " Apertures for 
'* «< Use of 

Aloes for Medicine 

Alterations in Grooming 
«» in Training 

Ammoniacal Ball 

Anointing the Hoofs . 

Antimony in Grooming 
" in Training 

Apparatus for Steaming 

Appendages to Stables 

" to Boiler-House 

" to Boxes, loose 

" to Grain-Chest 

«' to Granary 

" to Grooms' Bedroom 

" to Harness-Room 

" to Hay-Chaiulier . 

" to Stable-Cupboard 

«< to Stable-Shed . 

" to Stable-Yard 

» to Straw 

« to Water-Pond 

Apples 

Application of the Clothes , 

Arrangement of Stalls 

Articles used as Food . 

Assimilation of Food 

Attendance while out . 



Page. 

. 304 

330 

. 312 

231 

. 231 

300 

. 299 

138 

. 339 

222 

. 310 

328 

. 4 

49 

. 53 

46 

. 56 

46 

. 314 

323 

. 323 

352 

. 125 

122 

. 323 

215 

. 59 

63 

. 59 

62 

. 62 

65 

. 65 

61 

. 65 

64 

. 64 

62 

. 63 

191 

. 163 

171 

164 

218 

274 



Bran Meal 



Bad Oats 
Bad Stables 
Back, Injury of the 
Baking of the Food 



Bales . 
" Gangway 
" Standing . 
Ball, giving of a 
Bandages for Legs 
Barbadoes Aloes . 
Barley 

" boiled 

" Dust of 

" malted 

" Mash 
Barn Chaff . 
Bathing . 
Botts, the . 
Bran Chaff 
Bran Flour, or 
Bran Straw 
Beans . 

Bed for the Groom 
Bedding 
Bedding by Day 
" the Horse 
" after Work 
Belly, Reduction of the Size of 
Biter, Stall for a 
Biting . . . • 
Bitter Extract . 
Bleeding 

after Grazing 

" in Training 
" Wounds 

Blind Horses, Cure of 
Blistering 

Blood, Circulation of the 
Blowing the Nose after a 
Blown Horses, Care of 
Boiler-House 
Boiling tlie Food 
Bones, broken 

" Injury of the 
Boots against Cutting 
Bowels, Diseases of the 
Boxes, loose 
Boys for the Stable 

" mischievous 
Bran . 

Bran-Mash . 
Brank 
Bread . 
Bread, wheaten 
Breaking of Horses 
♦• down 
" in Exertion 



Pare 

. 2« 

31 

. 29 
314 
336, 337 

. 314 
181 
182 
184 



183 

174 



Gallop 



174 
174 
189 
174 

166, 187 
65 

131,338 

133 

. 131 

338 

. 304 

153 

. 151 

198 

322, 366 
277 
322 
349 
364 
367 
296 
326 
350 
63 
212 



348 
. 340 

224 

. 59 

77 

. 78 

185 
. 185 

187 
. 189 

186 
. 290 

347 
.29? 



372 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Breaking loose . . .139 

Breathing in Exertion . . 307 

" in Training . . . 307 

" Quickness of the . 300 

Breecli-Bands, use of . . . 333 

Broken Back . . .346 

" Bones ... .348 

" Knees 345 

" Legs ... .348 

" Neck 346 

" Wind , . . 3o3 

Broken-winded Horses . . . 289 
Brown of Glasgow, Food of, for Hor- 



Bruising of the Food 
Brush, the 
Buckwheat . 
Bulk of the Food . 



C. 



Cabbage 


. . 166 


Cab-Horse 


. 252 


Carcass, Size of, in Training 


. ". 305 


Care of the Clothes . 


. 163 


Care of the Feet . 


. 259 


Carriage-Horse, Food of the 


252 


Carrots .... 


. 176 


Cart-Horses, Food of 


. 250 


Cartuig . 


. 369 


Casting the Hair 


. 104 


Causewayed Floor 


. 24 


Cavalry Horse, Food of the 


. 263 


Chaff Barn 


. 174 


" Cutting 


. 202 


" Eating of 


. 204 


" Objections to . 


. 205 


Change of Diet 


. 240 


" of Litter. 


. . 132 


Cherry's Fell Pads . 


. 123 


Chestnuts for Food . 


. 191 


Chilled Water . 


. 282 


Choking in the Collar . 


. 349 


Chronic Cough 


. 362 


Circulation of the Blood . 


. 298 


Clay-Box, the . 


. 128 


Cleaning after severe Work 


. 335 


Cleaning the Nostrils after a 


Gallop 326 


Clipping .... 


. 118 


" Objections to . 


119 


'T-''lj>ping the Coat 


. 119 


Uogs against Kicking . 


. . 146 


4;iothes, Apphcation of the 


. 163 


" Care of the 


. 163 


" of different Kinds 


. 161 


" Tearing off the . 


. 162 


Clothing 


. 161 


" a wet Horse 


96 


^^lover 


. 166 


Coaching Work 


. 358 


Coachmen .... 


. 74 


Coal , Polishing of the . 


. 119 


Cold, Effects of . 


. 295 


" Stables . 


. 160 


" Water 


. . 283 


Colic .... 


224,317 


" Causes of . 


. 224 


*♦ Spasmodic 


. 226 


" Symptoms of 


. . 226 


" Treatment of . 


. 227 



251 
209 
83 
187 
235 



Collar for tying up . 
" Reins 
" safe . 
Colt, Feet of the . 

*' Starvation of the 
Comparative Cost . 
" Idleness 

" Value of Fodder 

Composition of Food . 

" of Physic . 

Condensed Food . 
Condition, Preserving of the 
Conditioning 
Confinement . 
Congestion of the Lungs . 
Cooking of Food 
Cordials, after Work . 
" Composition of 
" in Grooming 
" in Training 
Corn ... 
*' Chest for . 
" Dust of . . . 
Cost of keeping Farm-Horses 
Cough, chronic . 
Cows' Milk .... 
Crib-Biters .... 
Crib, Biting of the . 
Crall's Horses, Food of 

Cumins 

Currycomb, Abuse of 

" Use of . 

Cutting of Fodder . 
Cutting of the Legs . 



Page 
. 137 

138 
. 297 

130 
. 194 

260 
. 330 

198 
. 196 

314 
. 230 

328 
. 303 

273 
. 350 

201 
. 338 

324 

121 

324 
. 177 



193, 



181 

249 

362 

195 

. 363 

. 150 

. 256 

. 183 

87 

83 

202, 205 

. 339 



Damaged Fodder, bad Effects of . 204 

" " to consume . 204 

Daily Allowance of Oats . . . 180 

Damaged Oats 178 

Damaged Provender .... 204 

Damp Stables 14 

Dark Stables 21 

Day after Work .... 338 

Day Bedding 133 

Decoration, Operations of . . 104 
Debility from Abstinence . . .232 
Defective Forelegs .... 362 
Defective Horses . . . .362 
Deficiency of Food . . . 242,335 

Deglutition 219 

Delicate Horses in Physic . .311 

" '' in Training . . 327 

Deliberate Ingestion . . . 203 

Diabetes 179 

Diaphragm, Spasm of . . . 352 

Diet, Changes of 240 

" mixed 240 

Difference between Heat and Foul- 
ness . 44 

Difference of Clothing . . .161 
Digestion of Food . . .220 

" " aided by slow Work 229 

Digestion of Food suspended by fa.st 

Work 230 

Disease impairing the Condition . 328 

Diseased Horses .... 362 

Distress from Work . . . .351 

" " Signs of . 32J 



373 



Distribution of Food . 

Diuretics in Training 

Docking of tlie Hair . 

Doors of the Stable . 

Double-headed Stables 

Drains of Stables 

Draught Horse, Liability of. 
Diseases . 

Drawing the Horse Fine 

Dressing after Work • 
" before Work 
" in Grooming 
" of the Mane 
" the Tail 

Utility of . 
" Vicious Horsea 
" Want of . 

Drivers 

Drugs 

Drunkenness 

Dry Bandages . 

Dry HerKage 

Drying of the Food . 

Dust .... 

E. 

Ears, Cropping of the . 
" Stripping of the 
" Trimming of the 
Earth Floors . 
Ealing of the Litter . 
Education of the Groom . 

" of the Horse 

Effects of Hot Stabling . 

" of Physic 
Eggs as Food . 

" in Grooming 
Emaciation from Work . 
Endurance in Training 
Enteritis . . . • 
Epilepsy 

Evacuants, Effects of . 
Excess of Food . 

- of Work 
Excessive Fatigue 
Excoriation of the Skin . 
Exercise after Water . 

" of pastured Horses 
Exertion, Effects of . 
" inuring to rapid 
" inuring to slow 
" Physiology of . 
Exposure to the Weather 
Extract, bitter . 
" nutritive 



Face, Trimming of the . 
Falling. 

" Causes of . 
Farm-Horses, Cost of Keeping of 

" Food of 

" Grazing of 

Faniers as Surgeons . 
Fast-Boat-Horse 
Fasting .... 
Fast Work, Effects of . 

" " Preparation for 
Fat, Producti mof . 

32 



Page 

. 205 

. 323 

. 106 

18 

. 17 

25 

Bowel 

. 225 

. 309 

. 92 



112 
84 
111 
24 
149 
71 
290 
158 
312 
193 
121 
331 
304. 
224 
364 
312 
335 
331 
353 
297 



196 



112 
342 
344 
249 
247 
277 
369 
253 
231 
230 
302 
243 





Pago 


Fat, Removal of, by Physic 


.319 


" Removal of, by Sweating . 318 


Fatigue, Excessive . 


. 353 


Fatness, incompatible with Speed . 308 


Feeding .... 


200, 228 


at the Straw- Yard 


. 280 


" Change of 


. 240 


'* Hours of , 


. 235 


" Practice of . 


. 247 


Principles of . 


. 228 


Feet, Care of, at Grass 


. 270 


" " at the Straw Yard . 280 


" " in the Stable 


. 122,259 


" Injury of, by Work 


. 332 


" Management of the . 


. . 122 


" Neglect of the, in Colts . 130 


'« Picking of the . 


. 122 


" Stopping of the 


. 123 


Felt Pads .... 


. 123 


Fermentation of the Food 


. 223 


Fetters against Kicking . 


. 148 


Figs for Food , 


. 191 


Filling the Hay-rack . 


. . 37 


Fine Coat, a . . . 


. 119 


Fish, as Food 


• 193 


Flatulent Colic 


. 224 


Flesh, as Food . 


. 192 


Flesh, superfluous, impedes Exertion 308 


" " Removal of . 309 


Flies, at Grass . 


, . 270 


Floors of Stables . 


23 


" " causewayed 


. 24 


" " of Earth 


. 24 


paved . 


. 23 


Foal, Feeding of the 


. 194 


Fodder, comparative Value of 


. . 198 


" Cutting of the . 


. 202 


Foggy Horses 


. 311 


"omenting the Legs 


336, 366 


Food 


. 104,337 


" Articles of 


. 164 


" Assimilation of . 


. 218 


" Baking of 


. 216 


" Bulk of 


. 214,325 


" Composition of 


. 196 


" Condensed . 


. .236 


" Deficiency of . 


242, 235 


" Deglutition of . 


. 229 


*' Digestion of . 


. 220 


" Drying of . 


. 201 


" Evacuation of . 


. 220 


•' Excess of 


243, 335 


" dominating of . 


. 210 


" Grinding of 


. 210 


" Hard .... 


. 237 


" Indigestion of . 


. 222 


" Insalivation of 


. 219 


" Kinds of . 


. 164 


" Mastication of 


. 219 


" Mixture of . 


. . 205 


" Nutritive Matter of 


. 196 


" of Brown's Horses . 


. 251 


" of Croall's Horses . 


. 254 


•' of Hanbury and Truman 


's Hor- 


ses . 


251 


" of Harvey and Co.'s Hoi 


ses . 252 


" of Lyon's Horses 


. . 253 


*' of Mail-Horses 


. 253 


" of Mein's Horses 


. . 9bt 



374 



Pood of Walker's Horses 

" of Wiggins's Horses 

" Prehension of. 

" Preparation of . 

" Quantity of . 
Foreman of the Stables 
Forelegs, defective . 
Formation of Heat 
Foul Stables . 
Foulness, Glanders . 

" Plethora . 
Founder . . • 
Fraser's Horses, physicked 
Feet, the 
Front Rack, the 
Fruit, as Food . 
Fumigated Oats 
Furze, as Food 



INDEX. 



Page.] 

2541 Halter 



241 



251 

218 

201 
,271 
. 79 

362 

. 301 

44 

. 365 

245 
. 222 

358 

. 224 

35 

. 192 

178 

. 167 



fage 
, 13S 

142 



Gallops to try the Wind . 
Galls of the Skin . 
Gangway Bales . 

" standing in the 
Gentleman's Coachman . 
Germinating the Food . 
Getting loose 
Gibbon, Mr., Stables of . 
Gig-Horse . . , • ,; 
Girthing to reduce the Belly 
Girths, refusing of the 
Girths, undoing of the, on a blown 

Horse . . • 
Giving a Ball . • 
Glanders, Management of 

" relative to bad Air 
Glasgow Coaches . 
Gluten in Food . 
Gorse, as Food 

Grain . . . • 
«< Chest 

«' Mastication of . 
« Wasting of the 

Grains , 

Granary . . 

Grass . . • • 

Grazing of Farm-Horses 

Grazing of Hunters . 

Grease in the Heels 

Green Herbage . 

Grinding of the Food 

Gripes, the . 

Grogginess, Cause of 

Groom, the . 

" Duties of the 

Grooming . 

Groom's Bedroom . 

Grooms, untrained 

Grooming Animals . 

Gruel 

H. 

Habits of tne Stable . 
Habitual Restriction of Water 
Hair, Docking of the . 

" Laying of the . 

" PoUsh of the 

" Properties of the . 

•' Uses of the 



297 
. 31 

140 
. 74 

210 
. 13Q 
66,69 
. 252 

305 
. 155 

351 
314 
365 
50 
359 
196 
167 
177 



Casting 

for tying . . • • "" 
Halter-rein, stepping over the . .144 
Hanbury and Truman's Horses, Food 

of 

Iland-rubbing the Legs 

Hanging in the Halter . 

Hard Feeding . ... 

Hard Food 

Hard Water . - 
Harness, inuring to the . 
Harness-Room . . • , " , " 
Harvey and Co.'s Horses, Food of . 
Haws for Food . . • • ■ 

Hay 

" Chamber . • • 

" daily Allowance of . 
" good . . • • 
" heated . . . • 
» Lattermath .... 
<' mow-burnt 

" musty 

" new . . . • 
" Racks . • • 

" " mode of filling of 
" salted . . . • 
«« Seed . . . • 
" Tea , . . • 
" weather-beaten 
Head, Injuries of the . 
Head Ostler or Foreman 
Head, Position of the . 
Heat, Formation of 

" redundant in Exertion 
Heated Hay 
" Horse . 
" Oats . 
Heels, Trimming of the 
" Washing of the . 

Hemp-Seed ^^^ 

Hog-Mane, the '^" 

Home-summering 
Hoof-Ointment, Composition of 

" Use of 

Hoofs, Anointing of the • 

" Care of the, in the Stable 
" urging the Growth of the 
" Wall of the . 
,», Horse-Chestnuts . 
i^^^ Horse, Dressing of . 
^j," Horse- Shoers • • „ 
^^^ Horses standing m loose Boxes 



205 
148 
183 
62 
165 
277 
257 
115 



251 
. 115 
139 
. 239 
237 
. 282 
296 
. 65 
252 
. 192 
168 
. 61 
171 
.68 
169 
200 
97 
. 170 
169 
34,36 
37 
. 171 
172 
. 172 
170 
. 347 
79 
. 268 
, 301 
. 301 
. '-59 
. 93 
. 179 
. 113 
99 
191 



334 
76 
82 
82 
65 
76 
201 
181 



146 
286 
106 
109 
109 
104 
104 



in the Straw-Yard 

Hot Stables 

Hot-Stabling, Effects of . 
Hours of Feeding . . . • 
Humors . . • • 
Hunter, Food of the 
" Grazing of the 
" Summering of the 
" Work of the . 
Huntin 



127 

. 127 

125 

. 122 

127 

. 125 

192 

84,85 

. 125 

130 

130 

157 

. 158 

. 235 

.. 246 

256, 262 

. 257 

. 256 

. 355 

. 356 



Hunting-Shoe 
Husk of Wheat 



341, 



342 
185 



Idleness impairs the Condition . .330 
Impure Air , . .47,« 



INDEX. 



375 



Impure Air, Apertures for the 

cape of ... . 
Inabstinence . 
Inanition from Abstinence 
Indian Corn 
Indigestion, acute 

" from Abstinence 

" of the Food . 

Influenza .... 
Ingestion, deliberate . 
Injuries of the Back 

" " Bones , 

" " Condition 

" " Head . 

" " Knees . 

" " Legs • 

" " Neck . . 

** " Sinews 

Insalivation of the Food . 
Inuring to Exertion . 

** to the Harness 

" to the Stable . 

" to the Weather . 



J. 



Page. 



es- 



53 
234 
232 
187 
222 
231 

. 222 
50, 246 

. 203 
346 

. 348 
328 

. 347 
345 

. 348 
346 

. 348 
219 

. 297 

. 296 
294 

. 294 



Jaw-Piss 179 

Joints, open 345 



249 
154 
148 
146 



Keeping of Farm-Horses, Cost of 
Kicker, Stall for a . 
Kicking, Fetters for . 
" of the Stall-Post 

Vice of 153 

Kiln-dried Oats . . . .178 

Kinds of Work 353 

Knees, Injury of ... . 345 



Lameness impairs the Condition . 329 


Lattermath Hay 


. 200 


Leaping into the Manger 


. 145 


Legs, Bandages for the . 


. 336 


*' Breakmg of the 


. . 348 


" Care of, after W^rk 


. 832 


" Fomenting of the . 


. 336,366 


" Hand-rubbing of the 


. 115 


" Injury of, by Work 


. 332 


" Trimming of the . 


. . 113 


" Washing of the 


. 99 


" Wet . . . 


. 100 


Length, in Training . 


. 304 


Lice 


90 


Licking . . • . 


. 149 


Linseed for a Cough 


. 190 


Linseed for the Coat . 


. 120 


Litter, Change of the 


. 132 


" Eating of the . 


. 149 


Lodging .... 


. . 259 


Loose Boxes 


. 59 


Losing a Shoe . 


. 342 


Lotions 


. 115 


Low, Professor, on feedi 


ng Farm- 


Horses .... 


. . 248 


Lucerne 


. 1C6 


Lungs, Congestion of 


. 350 


Lungs, State of, from over 


Exertion 350 


" " in Trainir 


g . .306 


Lying in the Gangway . 


. . 140 



Lying under the Manger . 
Lyon's Horses, Food of . 

" *' Work of . 

Lyon's Stables, Lighting of 

" •' Ventilation of 

M. 
Maceration of the Food . 
Magazine of Domestic Economy 
Mail Horses, Food of 

" " Work of 

Maize 

Malt .... 
Malted Barley . 
Malt-Dust . 
Management of the Feet 
Mane, Dressing of the 

" Utility of the 
Mange, in Grooming . 
Mangel-Wurzel 
Mangers for Grain 
" for Watei . 
" Leaping into the 
Mare's Milk 
Mashes of Bran . 
Mashing of the Food 
Masking of the Food . 
Matticant, the . 
Mastication of the Food 
Mastication of the Grain 
Matter, nutritive 
Medical Attendance 
Medicine 

Megrims .... 
Mein's Horses, Food of 
Mercury .... 
Milk of the Cow, as Food 
Mixed Diet 

Mixing of the Food . 
Moisture to the Wall of the Hoof 
Moulting 

Moveable Mangers . 
Mud, Removal of 
Muscles, State of, in Training 
Muscular Action, Effects of 
Muscular Exertion . . . 299, 
Musty Hay . 
Muzzle, Trimming of the 

N. 

Navicular Diseases, Cause of 

Neck, Injury of the . 

Neck-Safe .... 

Neck-Straps for tying up 

New Hay .... 

New Oats ... 

Nicking ,. . . . 
" Operation of 

Nimrod on hard Feeding . 
" on Summering Hunters 
" on walking Exercise 

Nitre . . . . 

Noddy 

Nostrils, Clearing of th» 

Nutritive Matter 



O. 



Oaten Bread 
Oatmeal Gruel 



Page. 
. 142 
253 
. 358 
19 
. 56 



190 
253 
358 
187 
182 
182 
182 
122 
110 
105 
90 
177 
38 
41 
145 
194 
185 
211 
211 
247 
219 
203 
196 
367 
260 
364 
255 
121 
193 
240 
207 
127 
104 



298 
324 
170 
112 



333 
346 
296 
137 
I«9 
178 
107 
109 

aso 

259 
324 

217 
252 
326 
196 



181 
181 



576 



Oatmeai Seeds . 

Oat- plant . . • • 

Oats 

<' bad . 

" daily Allowance of . 

" damaged . 

" Dust . . . . 

" fumigated 

" germinated . 

" good 

" heated 

" kiln-dried 

" new . . . • 

" Pieparation of 

«' speared 

« Substitutes for 
Oil-Cake . . . • 
Oil to improve the Coat . 
Old Horses, Care of . 
Omnibus Horses 
Open Joints . 
Operation of Nicking 
Operations for Decoration 

" in the Stable 

Ostlers .... 
Over-loaded Stomach 
Over-marking 
Over-reaching . 
Over-training 



INDEX. 



P. 



Page. 

. 181 
. 166 
166,177 
. 178 

. 180 
. 178 

. 181 
. 178 
181,210 

. 179 
. 176 

. 178 
. 180 
181,210 
, 180 

. 190 
. 120 

, 362 
. 252 

. 345 



Practice of Feeding 

Precautions against Rats 

Prehension 

Preparation for Fast- Work 

«' J Pasturing 

" lor Work 

" of Food 

Prepared Oats 
Prevention of Waste 
Principles of Feeding . 
Pulling off the Shoes 
Process of Fermentation . 
Pumpkins 

Pure Air . . • ,• . . , 
" Apertures for the admissioj of 



Page 
247 

. 27 
218 

. 302 
272 



104 
71 
79 
223 
350 
340 
308 



266 
266 



14: 



Pain, injuring the Condition . • 3-9 
Paisley Coaches • ' * ' V-a 
Parsnips •'"''' -~ 
Partitions between Horses . 
Pasture Fields . . • • 
Pasturing . • • , • 

" Preparation for . 
Pawing the Ground . 

Peas 

Pell, Mr., Stalls of . 
Percivall's Sandal 
Perspiration in Exertion . 

«' in Training . 
Physic 

*' after Grazing . 

«' before Grazing . 

" Composition of 

" Course of . • • 

" Eflfectsof. 

" in Grooming . 

" in Training 

" Preparation for 

" Treatment under . 

" Uses of . 
Physiology of muscular Exertion 
Picking the Feet . 

sse."- .-.•.• .•=44.|« 

Ploughing . ... . • • ■ fj! 
Poi«oning, Suspicion of . . • j^j^ 
Position of the Head . 
Post-Horse . . • • 
Poulticing . . 
Potatoes . . . • 

Power and Speed, Table of 
'« in Training 
*« relative to Speed . 



69 
342 
301 
319 
310 
275 
272 
314 
313 
312 
120 
310 
310 
316 
310 
298 
122 
179 



Quackery . 

Quantity of Flesh . 
" of Food 
" of Water . 
of Work 

Quickness of Breathing 



Race-Horse, Food of the 
Racing .... 
Racks for Hay . 
•Rats, Precautions against 
Refusing of the Girths 
Rein, the .... 
Removal of Mud . 
Repose .... 
Respiration in Exertion 

" in Training . 

Restraints in Stabling 

" Accidents from 

Restriction of Water . 
Roarers .... 
Robust Horses in Physic 

" » in Training 

Rock- Salt ... 
Rolling in the Stall . 
Roof of tl:e Stable 
Roots ■ . 

Rye .... 
Rye-Grass 



Saddle-Horses, Food for 

Safe for the Neck 

Sago . 

Saintfoin 

Salt aids Digestion . 

Salt for Seasoning 

Salt Marshes . 

Salt to excite Appetite 

Salted Hay 

Saltpetre 

Sandal-Shoe . 

Schools, Veterinary . 

Scraping . • • 

Seasoning of Food 

" of the Horse 



§eeds . 

Servants fi Stables. 
Service 
Shackles . 



201 
180 
202 
228 
338 
223 
191 
40 
55 



369 



241,271 

. 284 

. 355 



. 263 

357 

34-36 

27 

. 155 



. 360 
. 300 

. 307 
. 136 

. 138 

284,286 



. 311 
. 327 

. 217 
. 141 

. 22 
. 174 
166, 187 
. 166 



263 
296 
191 
166 
231 
216 
267 
231 
171 
217 
S42 
, 369 



. 216 
303 

. 181 

72 

290 

14g 



INDEX. 



377 



Page. 



Shaving 




. 117 


Shelter .... 


. 269 


Shoe against Cutting 


341, .^42 


" " Over-markin 


g . .343 


" Hunting 




. 341,342 


" Loss of a. 




. .^42 


Shoeing 




. 129 


Shoes, Removal of, after A 


Vor 


k . 338 


Shying the Door . 




. 148 


Sickness .... 




. 365 


Side-Rack . 




. 35 


Sinews, Injury of, at Worl 




. 348 


Singeing 




. 117 


Sinker, the 




. 138 


Size of the Belly . 




304 


Sleep .... 




360 


Slinging 




361 


Slow- Work aids Digestion 




. 229 


Snorting after a Gallop 




. 326 


Soil 




271 


Soiling with Grass 




. 278 


Spasm of the Diaphragm 




. 352 


Spasmodic Colic . 




. 223 


Speared germinated Oats 




. 210 


Speed in Training 




. 304 


" relative to Power 




. 353 


Spices aid Digestion . 




. 231 


Sponge-Boots . 




. 128 


Stable-Boys . 




. 77 


Stable-Cupboard 




65 


Stable-Men . 




. 72 


Stable-Posts . 




33 


Stable-Shed 




. 64 


Stable-Yard . 




64 


Stables 




. 13 


" Accidents in . 




. 138 


" Appendages to 




. 59 


" Architects of . 




13 


" Close . 




. 47 


" Cold . 




. 159 


♦' Construction of 




. 15 


" Cupboard of . 




65 


" Damp . 




. 14 


•« Dark 




21 


" Donaldson's 




. 26 


" Doors of . 




18 


" Double-headed 




. 17 


♦' Floor of . 




. 23, 24 


Foul . 




. 44 


" Gibbons's . 




. 66-69 


" Habits of . 




. 146 


Hot . 




. 157 


" Laing's 




. 20 


" Large 




16 


« Light . . 




. 21 


" Lyon's 




. 20,56 


« New . 


. 15 


" of the Veterinary C 


oUege 56 


^ Operations in the 


. 71 


'* Operations on the 


. . 131 


" Restraints of . 


. 136 


♦' Roof of. 


. 22 


'* Servants in 


72 


Shed of 


. 64 


" Situation of 


14 


" Size of . 


. 15 


** Stalls of . 


16 


« Temperature of . .160 


•* Transitions in th 





160 





Paga 


Stables, Treatment inuring to 


. 294 


" Ventilation of . 


43 


■*' Vices of 


. 150 


Walls of . . . 


17 


Warm . 


. . 159 


Washing of . 


. 134 


" Windows of . 


. 18» 22 


" Yard of . . 


64 


Stabling .... 


. 13 


Stage-coach Horse, Food of 


. 253 


Work of 


. . 358 


Staggers .... 


. 223 


Staking .... 


. 348 


Staling-Evil, the . 


. 179 


Stall-cast Horses 


. . 143 


Stall for a Biter 


. 153 


" for a kicker 


. 154 


Stall-post, Kicking of the 


. 146 


Stalls .... 


. . 16 


" Arrangement of. 


17 


" Casting . 


. 143 


" Declivity of 


26 


" Pell's . 


. 69 


" Posts of . 


33 


" Turning in . 


. 33, 142 


Width of . 


33 


Standing Bales . 


. 29,31 


" " Objections to 


30 


Standing in the Gangway . 


. 140 


State of Breathing . 


• 306 


State of the Muscles . 


. 306 


Steaming Apparatus 


. 215 


Steaming of ti.e Food 


. 214 


Steeping of the Food 


. 210 


Stepping over the Halter-Rei 


n . .144 


Stiffness from Work 


. 332 


Stomach, overloaded . 


. .223 


" Size of the 


. 221 


Stopping of the Feet . 


. 123 


Stoutness in Training . 


. . 304 


Strappers .... 


• 78 


Straw .... 


62, 172 


Straw-loft . 


. . 62 


Straw-Yards . 


. 279 


Street-Coach Horse . 


. 252 


Strength .... 


. •. 353 


Suckling .... 


. . 194 


Sudden Transitions . 


. 160 


Sugar-Beet .... 


. . 174 


Sugar for Food 


. 191 


Summering of the Hunter 


. 256 


Superfluous Flesh . 


. 309 


Superpurgation . 


. . 317 


Surgery .... 


. 369 


Suspension of Digestion . 


. 229 


Swallowing 


. 220 


Sweating .... 


. 317,326 


" Distance . 


. 322 


" from Exertion 


. 301,320 


" Ground . 


. . 326 


" in Training . 


. 317 


" without Exertion 


. 318 


Sweet Potatoes . 


192 


Switch-tail, a . 


. lip 


Swooning in the Collar 


35*0 


Symptoms of Colic 


. 226 


Table of Fodder . 


. 198 


" of Food . 


. . 201 


" of Power and Speed 


. . 355 



32* 



878 



INDEX 



Tail, Amputation of the 
•' Use of the 
" Dressing of the . 
Tares .... 
Tearing off the Clothes 
Teeth, Defection in Colts' 

" " in old Horses 

Temperature of Stables . 

of Water 
Temper in relation to Training 
Thirst . • . . . 
Tliorns in Legs 
Thrushes .... 
Times of turning out 
Training .... 

" Agents of 
Transitions of Temperature 
Travelling 

Travises .... 
Treatment after Grooming 

'• after Work 

" of Colic . 

" of slall-cast Horses 

" of Vices 

" under Physic 

Trial Gallops . 
Trimming of the Ears 

" " Eyes . 

" " Face 

" Heels . 

•• " Muzzle 

Turning in the Stall 
Turning out 
Turnip-Cabbage 
Turnips 
Tying up . 

U. 



I*age. 

. 106 

lOti 
. 109 

lfi6 
. 162 

219 
. 219 

160 
. 282 

32b 
, 281 

336^ 
. 125 

272 
. 303 

310 
. 160 

356 
. 31 

274 
. 335 

227 
. 143 

150 
. 316 

320 
. Ill 

113 
. 112 

113 
. 112 

142 
. 272 

177 
. 175 

136 



Under-Rack 
Unshod Colts . 
Untrained Grooms 
Urine, State of, in Diabetes 
Utility of Clipping 
" of Dressing . 



Ventilation of Stables 

" " Modes of 

" " Object of 

*' •' Objections to 

Vetch-Seed 

Veteri<iary College, Stables of the 
*' Schools 

" Surgeons 

Vice, Treatment of . . . 

Vices of the Stables 

Vicious Horses Dressing of 



W. 

Walker's Horses, Food of , 

tt'^alking Exercise . 

" of a heated Horse 
•' of a wet Horse 



254 
325 
93 
94 



Wall, Moisture to the 
Warm Stables . 
Want of Dressing 
Warmth .... 
Washing 

" of Food 

" of the Legs . 

" of the Stable 
Waste and Spare 
Waste, Prevention of . 
Wasting of the Grain . 
Water .... 

" Cold, Effects of 

" Farcy . 

" kind of 

" Mangers 

" Pond. 

" Quantity of . 

" Temperature of 
Watering after Work . 
Weaning of the Foal . 
Weather Clothing . 
" Cold . 
•' Exposure to the, 
" Inuring to the . 
Weaving 

Weed, a, the Colt . 
Wright, the . 
Wet Bandages 
Wet Horse, Clothing of a 
Wet Legs 
" " Wisping of . 
" Skin. 
Wheat .... 

♦' bruised . 

" Husk of . 

" Strawr . 
Wheaten Bread . 
Whin .... 
Wiggins's Horses, Food of 
Wind-broken Horses 
Wind in Exertion 

" in Training . 
Wind-Sucking . 
Window-shutters . 
Windows 
Winter Suit 
Wisp, the . 
Wisping a wet Horse 
Work .... 

•' Accidents of . 

" Amount of 

" Excess of 

" Kinds of . 

" Qf Lyon's Horses . 

" Preparation for 

" Treatment after . 
Working Condition 
Worms .... 
Wounds, bleeding 

Y. 
Yams .... 
Vouatt, Quotations from 
Young Horses 



Grass 



Page. 

. 127 
. 159 

. 90 
. 157 

. 99 
. 208 

. 99 
134 

. 309 
. 202 

. 148 
281,337 



244 

283 
41 
63 
284 
282 
3cf7 
195 
162 
102 
269 
294 
147 
196 
138 
337 



100 

95 

94 

166, 184 

184 

185 

173 

186 

167 

250 

363 

300 

307 

ISO, 364 

22 

19 

161 

84 

95 

290 

339 

355 

331 

353 

358 

290 

335 

328 



349 



177 

51 

363 



THE END. 



^47 7 



LlBF^Fi 



yoF 



002 



llllllllllllllllli 



860 



""milium 



506 



» 



I////I 



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